GIFT   OF 


THE  HUMDOLDT  LIBRARY  SERIES. 


MODERN  SCIENCE 
AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

WITH  A  SUPPLEMENTAL  CHAPTER 

ON    GLADSTONE'S    "DAWN    OF  CREATION"    AND 

"PROEM  OF  GENESIS,"  AND  ON  DRUM- 

MOND'S  "  NATURAL  LAW  IN  THE 

SPIRITUAL    WORLD." 


BY 


S.  LAING. 

II 


NEW  YORK: 

THE  HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  Co., 

28  LAFAYETTE  PLACE. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I. 

MODEEN  SCIENCE. 
CHAPTER  I. 


PAGE 
SPACE  .........  9 

Primitive  Ideas — Natural  Standards^Dirnensions  of  the  Earth — Of  Sun 

and   Solar  System — Distance  of    Fixed  Stars — Their  Order  and  Size 

Nebulae  and  other  Universes — The  Telescope  and  the  Infinitely  Great 

The  Microscope  and  the  Infinitely  Small— Uniformity  of  Law— Law  of 
Gravity— Acts  through  all  Space — Double  Stars,  Comets,  and  Meteors — 
Has  acted  through  all  Time. 


CHAPTER   II. 


TIME  ...........         17 

Evidence  of  Geology — Stratification — Denudation — Strata  identified  by 
Superposition — By  Fossils — Geological  Record  shown  by  Upturned  Strata — 
General  Result — Palaeozoic  and  Primary  Periods — Secondary — Tertiary — 
Time  required — Coal  Formation — Chalk — Elevations  and  Depressions  of 
Land — Internal  Heat  of  Eirth— Earthquakes  and  Volcanoes — Changes  of 
Fauna  and  Flora — Astronomical  Time — Tides  and  the  Moon — Sun's 
Radiation — Earth's  Cooling — Geology  and  Astronomy — Bearings  on  Mod- 
ern Thought. 


M97454 


4  CONTEXTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

PAGE 
MATTER  ......  ...      32 

Ether  and  Light — Color  and  Heat— Matter  and  its  Elements — Molecules 
and  Atoms — Spectroscope— Uniformity  of  Matter  throughout  the  Uni- 
verse— Force  and  Motion — Conservation  of  Energy — Electricity,  Magnet- 
ism, and  Chemical  Action— Dissipation  of  Heat— Birth  and  Death  of 
Worlds. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

LIFE  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  •  .44 

Essence  of  Life — Simplest  Form,  Protoplasm— Monera  and  Protista — 
Animal  and  Vegetable  Life — Spontaneous  Generation — Development  of 
Species  from  Primitive  Cells — Supernatural  Theory — Zoological  Prov- 
inces— Separate  Creations — Law  or 'Miracle — Darwinian  Theory — Struggle 
for  Life— Survival  of  the  Fittest — Development  and  Design — The  Hand — 
Proof  required  to  establish  Darwin's  Theory  as  a  Law — Species — Hybrids — 
Man  subject  to  Law. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN      .  .  •  •  .  •  .  .  .57 

Belief  in  Man's  Recent  Origin — Boucher  de  Perthes'  Discoveries — Con- 
firmed by  Prestwich — Nature  of  Implements — Celts,  Scrapers,  and  Flakes — 
Human  Remains  in  River  Drifts — Great  Antiquity — Implements  from  Drift 
at  Bournemouth — Bone  Caves — Kent's  Cavern — Victoria,  Gower,  and  other 
Caves — Caves  of  France  and  Belgium — Ages  of  Cave  Bear,  Mammoth,  and 
Reindeer — Artistic  Race — Drawings  of  Mammoth,  etc. — Human  Types — 
Neanderthal,  Cro-Magnon,  Furfooz,  etc.— Attempts  to  fix  Dates — History — 
Bronze  Age — Neolithic — Danish  Kitchen-middens — Swiss  Lake-Dwellings — 
Glacial  Period — Traces  of  Ice— Causes  of  Glaciers — Croll's  Theory — Gulf 
Stream — Dates  of  Glacial  Period — Rise  and  Submergence  of  Land — Ter- 
tiary Man — Eocene  Period — Miocene — Evidence  for  Pliocene  and  Miocene 
Man — Conclusions  as  to  Antiquity. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATUBE  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 

Origin  of  Man  from  an  Egg — Like  other  Mammals — Development  of  the 
Embryo — Backbone — Eye  and  other  Organs  of  Sense — Fish,  Reptile,  and 
Mammalian  Stages — Comparison  with  Apes  and  Monkeys—  Germs  of  Hu- 
man Faculties  in  Animals — The  Dog — Insects — Helplessness  of  Human 
Infant — Instinct — Heredity  and  Evolution — The  Missing  Link — Races  of 
Men — Leading  Types  and  Varieties— Common  Origin  Distant — Language — 


CONTENTS.  5 

PAGE 

How  Formed — Grammar — Chinese,  Aryan,  Semitic,  etc. — Conclusions 
irom  Language — Evolution  and  Antiquity — Religions  of  Savage  Races — 
Ghosts  and  Spirits — Anthropomorphic  Deities— Traces  in  Neolithic  and 
Palaeolithic  Times— Development  by  Evolution— Primitive  Arts— Tools 
and  Weapons— Fire— Flint  Implements — Progress  from  Palasolithic  to 
Neolithic  Times— Domestic  Animals — Clothing — Ornaments — Conclusion, 
Man  a  Product  of  Evolution.  • 


PART  If. 


MODERN  THOUGHT. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

MODEBN  THOUGHT        .........       113 

Lines  from  Tennyson — The  Gospel  of  Modern  Thought — Change  exempli- 
fied by  Carlyle,  Renan,  and  George  Eliot — Science  becoming  Universal — 
Attitude  of  Orthodox  Writers — Origin  of  Evil — First  Cause  unknowable — 
New  Philosophies  and  Religions — Herbert  Spencer  and  Agnosticism — 
Comte  and  Positivism — Pessimism — Mormonism — Spiritualism — Dreams 
anl  Visions — Somnambulism — Mesmerism — Great  Modern  Thinkers — 
Carlyle — Hero-worship. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

MIRACLES          ..........      127 

Origin  of  Belief  in  the  Supernatural— Thunder— Belief  in  Miracles  form- 
erly Universal— St.  Paul's  Testimony — Now  Incredible — Christian  Miracles 
— Apparent  Miracles — Real  Miracles — Absurd  Miracles — Worthy  Miracles 
— The  Resurrection  and  Ascension — Nature  of  Evidence  required— Inspi- 
ration—Prophecy — Direct  Evidence — St.  Paul — The  Gospels — What  is 
Known  of  Them— The  Synoptic  Gospels — Resemblances  and  Differences — 
Their  Origin — Papias — Gospel  of  St.  John — Evidence  rests  on  Matthew, 
Mark,  and  Luke — What  each  states — Compared  with  one  another  and  with 
St.  John — Hopelessly  Contradictory — Miracle  of  the  Ascension — Silence  of 
M  rk — Probable  Early  Date  of  Gospels— But  not  in  their  Present  Form. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CHRISTIANITY  WITHOUT  MIRACLES       .......     142 

Practical  and  Theoretical  Christianity — Example  and  Teaching  of  Christ — 
Christian  Dogma — Moral  Objections — Inconsistent  with  Facts — Must  be 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

accepted  as  Parables— Fall  and  Kedemption— Old  Creeds  must  be  Trans- 
formed or  Die — Mahometanism — Decay  of  Faith — Balance  ef  Advantages 
— Religious  Wars  and  Persecutions — Intolerance — Sacrifice — Prayer — Ab- 
sence of  Theology  in  Synoptic  Gospels — Opposite  Pole  to  Christianity — 
Courage  and  Self-reliance — Belief  in  God  and  a  Future  Life — Based  mainly 
on  Christianity — Science  gives  no  Answer — Nor  Metaphysics — So-called 
Institutions — Development  of  Idea  of  God — Best  Proof  afforded  by  Chris- 
tianity— Evolution  is  Transforming  it — Reconciliation  of  Religion  and 
Science. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PBACTICAL  LIFE  .........    153 

Conscience — Right  is  Right — Self-reverence — Courage — Respectability — 
Influence  of  Press — Respect  for  Women — Self-respect  of  Nations — Democ- 
racy and  Imperialism — Self-knowledge — Conceit — Luck — Speculation — 
Money-making — Practical  Aims  of  Life — Self-control — Conflict  of  Reason 
and  Instinct — Temper— Manners — Good  Habits  in  Youth — Success  in  Prac- 
tical Life — Education — Stoicism — Conclusion. 


SUPPLEMENTAL  CHAPTER. 

Gladstone's   "Dawn  of   Creation"  and    "Proem   to   Genesis."      Drummond's 

"  Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World".          .  .  .  .  .164 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION. 


r  I  ^MJbJ  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  a  clear  and  concise  view  of  the 
"*•  principal  results  of  Modern  Science,  and  of  the  revolution  which 
they  have  effected  in  Modern  Thought.  I  do  not  pretend  to  discover 
fresh  facts  or  to  propound  new  theories,  but  simply  to  discharge  the 
humbler  though  still  useful  task  of  presenting  what  has  become  the 
common  property  of  thinking  minds,  in  a  popular  shape,  which  may 
interest  those  who  lack  time  and  oppoitunity  for  studying  special  sub- 
jects in  more  complete  and  technical  treatises. 

I  have  endeavored  also  to  give  unity  to  the  subjects  treated  of, 
by  connecting  them  with  leading  ideas :  in  the  case  of  Science,  that  of 
the  gradual  progress  from  human  standards  to  those  of  almost  infinite 
space  and  duration,  and  the  prevalence  of  law  throughout  the  universe 
to  the  exclusion  of  supernatural  interference;  in  the  case  of  Thought, 
the  bearings  of  these  discoveries  on  old  creeds  and  philosophies,  and 
on  the  practical  conduct  of  life.  The  endeavor  to  show  how  much  of 
religion  can  be  saved  from  the  shipwreck  of  theology  has  been  the 
main  object  of  the  second  part.  Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the 
scientific  literature  of  the  day  will  at  once  see  how  much  I  have  been 
indebted  to  Darwin,  Lyell,  Lubbock,  Huxley,  Proctor,  and  other  well- 
known  writers.  In  fact,  the  first  part  of  this  book  does  not  pretend 
to  be  more  than  a  compendious  popular  abridgment  of  their  works.  I 


8  PREFACE. 

prefer,  therefore,  acknowledging  rny  obligations  to  them  once  for  all, 
rather  than  encumbering  each  page  by  detailed  references. 

The  second  part  contains,  more  of  my  own  reflections  on  the  im- 
portant subjects  discussed,  and  must  stand  or  fall  on  its  own  merits 
rather  than  on  authority.  I  can  only  say  that  I  have  endeavored  to 
treat  these  subjects  in  a  reverential  spirit,  and  that  the  conclusions 
arrived  at  are  the  result  of  a  conscientious  and  dispassionate  endeavor 
to  arrive  at  "  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth." 

S.  LALNG. 


MODERN    SCIENCE 

AND 

MODERN     THOUGHT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

SPACE. 

THE  first  ideas  of  space  were  naturally  taken  from  the  standard  of 
man's  own  impressions.  The  inch,  the  foot,  the  cubit,  were  the 
lengths  of  portions  of  his  own  body,  obviously  adapted  for  measuring 
objects  of  comparatively  small  size  with  which  he  came  in  direct  contact. 
The  mile  was  the  distance  traversed  in  1,000  double  paces;  the  league 
the  distance  walked  in  an  hour.  The  visible  horizon  suggested  the 
idea  that  the  earth  was  a  flat,  circular  surface  like  a  round  table;  and 
as  experience  showed  that  it  extended  beyond  the  limits  of  a  single 
h,orizon,  the  conception  was  enlarged,  and  the  size  of  the  table  increased 
so  as  to  take  in  all  the  countries  known  to  the  geography  of  successive 
periods. 

In  like  manner  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  were  taken  to  be  at  the  dis- 
tance at  which  they  appeared;  that  is,  first  of  the  visible  horizon,  and 
then  of  the  larger  circle  to  which  it  had  been  found  necessary  to  expand 
it.  It  was  never  doubted  that  they  really  revolved,  as  they  seemed  to 
do,  round  this  flat  earth  circle,  dipping  under  it  in  the  west  at  night, 
and  reappearing  in  the  east  with  the  day.  The  conception  of  the  uni- 
verse, therefore,  was  of  a  flat,  circular  earth  surrounded  by  an  ocean 
stream,  in  the  centre  of  a  crystal  sphere  which  revolved  in  twenty-four 
hours  round  the  earth,  and  in  which  the  heavenly  bodies  were  fixed  as 
lights  for  man's  use  to  distinguish  days  and  seasons.  The  maximum 
idea  of  space  was  therefore  determined  by  the  size  of  the  earth  circle 
which  was  necessary  to  take  in  all  the  regions  known  at  the  time,  with 
a  little  margin  beyond  for  the  ocean  stream,  and  the  space  between  it  and 
the  crystal  vault,  required  to  enable  the  latter  to  revolve  freely.  In 
the  time  of  Homer  and  the  early  Greek  philosophers,  this  would  prob- 
ably require  a  maximum  of  space  of  from  5,000  to  10,000  miles.  This 
dimension  has  been  expanded  by  modern  science  into  one  of  as  many 
millions,  or  rather  hundreds  of  millions,  as  there  were  formerly  single 
miles,  and  there  is  no  sign  that  the  limit  has  been  reached. 

How  has  this  wonderful  result  been  arrived  at,  and  how  do  we  feel 
certain  that  it  is  true?  Those  who  wish  thoroughly  to  understand  it 
must  study  standard  works  on  Astronomy,  but  it  may  be  possible  to 
give  some  clear  idea  of  the  processes  by  which  it  has  been  arrived  at,  and  of 


10 


MODERX  SCIENCE  AND  MODERX  THOUGHT. 


*  £ 


the  cogency  ,qf .  tne  reasoning  ;;by  which  we  are  compelled  to  accept  facts 
so  contrary  tc  the  first  impressions  of  our  natural  senses. 

The  fundamental-  principle  upon  which  all  measurements  of  space 
depend,  which  ^aiw,  beyond  the  actool  applicationtof  human  standards,  is 

this:  that  distant  objects  change  their 
bearings  for  a  given  change  of  base, 
more  or  less  in  proportion  as  they  are 
less  or  more  distant.  Suppose  I  am 
on  board  a  steamer  sailing  down  the 
Thames,  and  I  see  two  churches  on 
the  Essex  coast  directly  opposite  to 
me,  or  bearing  due  north,  the  first  of 
which  is  one  mile  and  the  other  ten 
miles  distant.  I  sail  one  mile  due 
east  and  again  take  the  bearings.  It 
is  evident  that  the  first  church  will 
now  bear  north-west,  or  have  ap- 
parently moved  through  45°,  i.e., 
one-eighth  part  of  the  circumference 
of  a  complete  circle,  assuming  this 
circumference  to  be  divided  into  360 
equal  parts  or  degrees;  while  the 
more  distant  church  will  only  have 
altered  its  bearing  by  a  much  less 
•amount,  easily  determined  by  calcu- 
lation, but  which  may  be  taken 
roughly  at  5°  instead  of  45°. 

The  branch  of  mathematics  known  as  Trigonometry  enables  us  in 
all  cases,  without  exception,  where  we  know  the  apparent  displace- 
ment or  change  of  bearing  of  a  dis- 
tant object  produced  by  taking  it 

"5          ^     *  from  the  opposite  ends  of  a  known 

base,  to  calculate  the  distance  of 
that  object  with  as  much  ease  and 
certainty  as  if  we  were  working  a 
simple  sum  of  rule  of  three.  The 
first  step  is  to  know  our  base,  and 
for  this  purpose  it  is  essential  to 
know  the  size  and  form  of  the  earth 
on  which  we  live.  These  are 
determined  by  very  simple  consid- 
erations. 

If  I  walk  a  mile  in   a  straight 
line,  an  object  at  a  vast  distance  like 
a  star  will  not  change  its  apparent 
place  perceptibly.     But  if  I  walk  the 
£  same  distance  in  a  semi  circle,  what 
V5:-  was  originally  on  my  left  hand  will 
**  now  be  on  my  right,  or  will  have 
changed  its  apparent  place  by  180°. 
If  I  walk  my  mile  on  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  of  twice  the  size,  I 

shall  have  traversed  a  qnadrant  or  one-fourth  part  of  it,  and  changed 
the  bearing  of  the  distant  object  exactly  half  as  much,  or  90°,  and  so 


SPACE.  11 

on,  according-  to  the  size  of  the  circle,  which  may  therefore  be  readily 
calculated  from  the  length  that  must  be  travelled  along  it  to  shift  the 
bearing  of  the  remote  object  by  a  given  amount,  say  of  1°. 

If,  for  instance,  by  travelling  65  miles  from  north  to  south  we 
lower  the  apparent'height  of  the  Pole  star  1°,  it  is  mathematically 
certain  that  we  have  travelled  this  65  miles,  not  along  a  flat  surface, 
but  along  a  circle  which  is  360  times  65,  or,  in  round  numbers,  24,000 
miles  in  circumference  and  8,000  miles  in  diameter.  And  if,  whenever 
we  travel  the  same  distance  on  a  meridian  or  line  drawn  on  the  cir- 
cumference from  north  to  south,  we  find  tiie  same  displacement  of  1°, 
we  may  be  sure  that  our  journey  has  been  in  a  true  circle,  and  that  the 
form  of  the  earth  is  a  perfect  sphere  of  these  dimensions. 

Now,  this  is  very  nearly  what  actually  occurs  when  we  apply 
methods  of  scientific  accuracy  to  measure  the  earth.  The  true  form 
of  the  earth  is  not  exactly  spherical,  but  slightly  oval  or  flatter  at  the 
poles,  being  almost  precisely  the.form  it  would  have  assumed  if  it  had 
been  a  fluid  mass  rotating  about  a  north  and  south  axis.  But  it  is- 
very  nearly  spherical,  the  true  polar  diameter  being  7,899  miles,  find 
the  true  equatorial  diameter  7.925  miles,  so  that  for  practical  pur- 
poses we  may  say  roughly  that  the  earth  is  a  spherical  body,  24,000 
miles  round  and  8,000  miles  across. 

This  gives  us  a  fresh  standard  from  which  to  start  in  measuring 
greater  distances.  Precisely  as  we  inferred  the  distance  of  the  church 
from  the  steamer  in  our  first  illustration,  we  can  infer  the  distance  of 
the  sun,  from  its  displacement  caused  by  observing  it  from  two  oppo- 
site ends  of  a  base  of  known  length  on  the  earth's  surface.  This  is 
the  essential  principle  of  all  the  calculations,  though,  when  great  ac- 
curacy is  sought  for,  very  refined  methods  of  applying  the  principle 
are  required,  turning  mainly  on  the  extent  to  which  the  apparent 
occurrence  of  the  same  event — such  as  the  transit  of  Venus  over  the 
sun's  disc — is  altered  by  observing  it  from  different  points  at  known 
distances  from  one  another  on  the  earth's  surface.  The  result  is  to 
show  that  the  sun's  distance  from  the  earth  is,  in  round  numbers,  93,- 
000.000  miles.  This  is  not  an  exact  statement,  for  the  earth's  orbit  is 
not  an  exact  circle,  but  the  sun  and  earth  really  revolve  in  ellipses 
about  the  common  centre  of  gravity.  The  sun,  however,  is  so  much 
larger  than  the  earth  that  this  centre  of  gravity  falls  within  the  sun's 
surface,  and,  practically,  the  earth  describes  an  ellipse  about  the  sun, 
the  93,000,000  miles  being  the  mean  distance,  and  the  eccentricity,  or 
deviation  from  the  exact  circular  orbit,  being  about  one-sixtieth  part  of 
that  mean  distance.  This  distance,  again,  gives  us  the  size  of  the  sun, 
for  it  is  easily  calculated  how  large  the  sun  must  be  to  look  as  large  as 
it  does  at  a  distance  of  93,000,000  miles.  The  result  is,  that  it  is  a 
sphere  of  about  880,000  miles  in  diameter.  Its  bulk,  therefore,  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  earth  in  the  proportion  of  1,384,000  to  1.  Its 
density,  or  the  quantity  of  matter  in  it,  may  be  calculated  from  the 
effect  of  its  action  on  the  earth  under  the  law  of  gravity  at  the  dis- 
tance of  93,000,000  miles.  It  weighs  as  much  as  354,936  earths. 

The  same  method  gives  us  the  distance,  size,  and  weight  of  the 
moon  and  planets;  and  it  gives  us  a  fresh  standard  or  base  from  which 
to  measure  still  greater  distances.  The  distance  of  the  earth  from  the 
sun  being  93,000,000  miles,  and  its  orbit  an  ellipse  nearly  circular,  it 
follows  that  it  is  in  mid-winter,  in  round  numbers,  186,000,000  miles 
distant  from  the  spot  where  it  was  at  mid-summer.  What  difference  in 


12         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

the  bearings  of  the  fixed  stars  is  caused  by  traversing  this  enormous 
base? 

The  answer  is,  in  the  immense  majority  of  cases,  no  difference  at 
all;  i.e.,  their  distance  is  so  vastly  greater  than  186,000,000  miles  that 
a  change  of  base  to  this  extent  makes  no  change  perceptible  to  the 
most  refined  instruments  in  their  bearings  as  seen  from  the  earth.  But 
the  perfection  of  modern  instruments  is  such,  that  a  change  of  even 
one  second,  or  smooth  part  of  one  degree,  in  the  annual  parallax,  as  it  is 
called,  of  any  fixed  star,  would  certainly  be  detected. 

This  corresponds  to  a  distance  of  206,265  times  the  length  of  the 
base  of  186,000,000  miles,  or  of  20,000,000,000,000,000  iriiles,  a  dis- 
tance which  it  would  take  light  moving  at  the  rate  of  190,000  miles 
per  second,  three  years  and  eighty-three  day  to  traverse.  There  is 
only  one  star  in  the  whole  heavens,  a  bright  star  called  Alpha,  in  the 
constellation  of  the  Centaur,  which  is  known  to  be  as  near  as  this.  Its 
annual  parallax  is  0-976",  or  very  nearly  1",  and  therefore  its  distance 
very  nearly  20  millions  of  millions  of  miles.  All  the  other  stars,  of 
which  many  millions  are  visible  through  powerful  telescopes,  are 
further  off  than  this. 

There  are  about  eight  other  stars  which  have  been  supposed  by 
astronomers  to  show  some  trace  of  an  annual  parallax  of  less  than 
half  a  second,  and  therefore  whose  distances  may  be  somewhere  from 
twice  to  ten  times  as  great  as  that  of  Alpha  Centauri,  and  from  the 
quantity  of  light  sent  to  us  from  these  distances,  some  approximation 
has  been  made  to  their  intrinsic  splendor  as  compared  with  our  sun. 
That  of  Alpha  (/entauri  is  computed  to  be  nearly  2^-  times  that  of 
Sirius,  the  brightest  star  in  the  heavens,  393  times  greater  than  that 
of  the  sun.  These  figures  may  or  may  not  represent  greater  size  or 
greater  intensity  of  light,  and  they  are  only  quoted  to  give  some  idea  of 
the  vastness  of  the  scale  of  the  universe,  cf  which  our  solar  system 
forms  a  minute  part. 

Nor  does  even  this  nearly  fathom  the  depth  of  the  abysses  of  space. 
Telescopes  enable  us  to  see  a  vast  multitude  of  stars  of  varying  size 
and  brilliancy.  It  is  computed  by  astronomers  that  there  are  at  least 
one  hundred  millions  of  stars  within  the  range  of  the  telescopes  used 
by  Herschel  for  gauging  the  depth  of  space,  and  a  thousand  millions 
•within  the  range  of  the  great  reflecting  telescope  of  Lord  Rosse.  As 
many  as  eighteen  different  orders  of  magnitude  have  been  counted,  and 
the  more  the  power  of  telescopes  is  increased  the  more  stars  are  seen. 
Now,  as  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  this  extreme  variety  of 
brilliancy  arises  from  extreme  difference  of  size  of  one  star  from  an- 
other, it  must  be  principally  owing  to  difference  of  distance,  so  that  a 
star  of  the  eighteenth  magnitude  is  presumably  many  times  further  off 
than  any  of  the  first  magnitude,  the  distance  of  the  nearest  of  which 
has  been  proved  to  be  something  certainly  not  less  than  20.000,000.000,- 
000  miles.  In  fact,  these  stellar  distances  are  so  great  that  in  order  to 
bring  them  at  all  within  the  range  of  human  imagination  we  are 
obliged  to  apply  another  standard,  that  of  the  velocity  of  light.  Light 
€an  be  shown  to  travel  at  the  rate  of  about  186  millions  of  miles  in  16 
minutes,  for  this  is  the  difference  of  the  time  at  which  we  see  the  same 
periodical  occurrence,  as  for  instance  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites, 
according  as  the  earth  happens  to  be  at  the  point  of  its  orbit  nearest 
to  Jupiter  or  at  that  farthest  away.  The  velocity  of  light  is  therefore 
about  184,000  miles  per  second,  a  velocity  which  has  been  ful'y  con- 
iinned  by  direct  experiments  made  on  the  earth's  surface. 


SPACE.  13 

These  enormous  distances  are  reckoned,  therefore,  by  the  number 
of  years  which  it  would  take  light  to  come  from  them,  travelling  as  it 
does  at  the  rate  of  184,000  miles  a  second.  The  nearest  fixed  star, 
Alpha  Centauri,  is  seen  by  the  ray  which  left  it  three  years  and  eighty- 
three  days  ago,  and  has  been  travelling  ever  since  at  the  rate  of  184,000 
miles  per  second.  Sirius,  the  brightest  of  the  fixed  stars,  if  the  deter- 
mination of  its  annual  parallax  is  correct,  is  six  limes  further  off,  and 
is  seen,  not  as  it  exists  to-day  but  as  it  existed  nearly  twenty  years  ago;, 
and  the  light  we  now  see  from  some  of  the  stars  of  the  eighteen  magni- 
tude can  hardly  have  left  them  less  than  2,000  years  ago. 

Even  this,  however,  is  far  from  exhausting  our  conception  of  the 
magnitude  of  space.  Beyond  the  stars  which  are  near  enough  to  be 
seen  separately,  powerful  telescopes  show  a  galaxy  in  which  the  united 
lustre  of  myriads  of  stars  is  only  perceptible  as  a  faint  nebulous  gleam. 
And  in  addition  to  stars  the  telescope  shows  us  a  number  of  nebulae,  or 
faint  patches  of  light,  sometimes  globular,  sometimes  in  wreaths,  spiral 
wisps,  and  other  fantastic  shapes,  scattered  about  the  heavens.  Some 
of  these  are  resolved  by  powerful  telescopes  into  clusters  of  stars  incon- 
ceivably numerous  and  remote,  which  appear  to  be  separate  universes, 
like  that  of  which  our  sun  and  fixed  stars  form  one.  Others  again 
cannot  be  so  resolved,  and  are  shown  by  the  spectroscope  to  be  enor- 
mous masses  of  glowing  gas,  or  cosmic  matter,  out  of  which  other 
universes  are  in  process  of  formation. 

We  are  thus  led,  step  by  step,  to  enlarge  our  ideas  of  space  from 
the  primitive  conception  of  miles  and  leagues,  until  the  imagination 
fails  to  grasp  the  infinite  vastness  of  the  scale  upon  which  the  material 
universe  is  really  constructed. 

If  the  telescope  takes  us  thus  far  beyond  the  standards  of  unaided 
sense  in  the  direction  of  the  infinitely  great,  the  microscope,  aided  by 
calculations  as  to  the  nature  of  light,  heat,  electricity,  and  chemical 
action,  takes  us  as  far  in  the  opposite  direction  of  the  infinitely  small. 
The  microscope  enables  us  actually  to  see  magnitudes  of  the  order  of 
toojoooth  of  an  inch  as  clearly  as  the  naked  eye  can  see  those  of  ^th.  This 
introduces  us  into  a  new  world,  where  we  can  see  a  whole  universe  of 
things  both  dead  and  alive  of  whose  existence  our  forefathers  had  no 
suspicion.  A  glass  of  water  is  seen  to  swarm  with  life,  and  be  the 
abode  of  bacteria,  amcebse,  rotifers,  and  other  minute  creatures,  which 
dart  about,  feed,  digest,  and  propagate  their  species  in  this  small  world 
of  their  own,  very  much  as  jelly-fish  and  other  humble  organisms  do  in 
the  larger  seas.  The  air  also  is  shown  to  be  full  of  innumerable  germs 
and  spores  floating  in  it,  and  ready  to  be  deposited  and  spring  into  life, 
wherever  they  find  a  seed-bed  fitted  to  receive  them.  Given  a  favor- 
able soil  in  the  human  frame,  and  the  invisible  seeds  of  scarlet  fever, 
cholera,  and  small-pox  ripen  into  full  crops,  just  as  the  germs  of  a 
fungus  invade  the  potato  crops  of  a  whole  district,  and  lead  to  Irish 
famines  and  the  extermination  of  more  than  a  million  of  human  beings. 

The  microscope  also  enables  us  to  see  the  very  beginnings  of  life 
and  watch  its  primitive  element,  protoplasm,  in  the  form  of  a  minute 
speck  of  jelly-like  matter,  through  which  pulsations  are  constantly 
passing,  and  we  can  watch  the  transformations  by  which  an  elementary 
cell  of  this  substance  splits  up,  multiplies,  and  by  a  continued  process 
of  development  builds  up  with  these  cells  all  the  diversified  forms  of 
vegetable  and  animal  life. 

But  far  as  the   microscope  carries  us  down  to  dimensions  vastly 


14         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

smaller  than  those  of  which  the  ordinary  senses  can  take  cognizance, 
the  modern  sciences  of  light,  heat,  and  chemistry  carry  us  as  much 
farther  downwards,  as  the  telescope  carries  us  upwards  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  our  solar  system  into  the  expanses  of  stars  and  nebulae. 
We  are  transported  into  a  world  of  atoms,  molecules,  and  light- waves, 
where  the  standard  of  measurement  is  no  longer  in  feet  or  inches,  or 
even  in  one-hundred-thousandth  part  of  an  inch,  but  in  millionths  of 
millimetres,  i.  e.,  in  25,ooo,ooo,ooot<h  of  an  inch.  The  dimensions  are  such 
that,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to  deal  with  matter,  if  the  drop  of 
water  in  which  the  microscope  shows  us  living  animalcula  wrere  magni- 
fied to  the  size  of  the  earth,  the  atoms  of  which  it  is  composed  would 
appear  of  a  size  intermediate  between  that  of  a  rifle-bullet  and  a 
cricket-ball. 

This,  then,  is  Nature's  scale  of  space,  from  millionths  of  a  millime- 
tre up  to  millions  of  millions  of  miles.  Throughout  the  whole  of  this 
enormous  range  of  space  the  laws  of  Nature  prevail. 

Matter  attracts  matter  by  the  same  law  of  gravity  in  the  case  of 
double  stars  revolving  about  each  other  at  a  distance  at  which  a  base  of 
180,000,000  miles  has  long  since  become  a  vanishing  point,  and  in  the 
case  of  atoms  which  form  the  substance  of  a  gas,  as  in  that  of  an  apple 
falling  from  a  tree  at  the  earth's  surface.  Comets,  darting  off  into  the 
remote  regions  of  space,  return  after  long  periods,  in  obedience  to  the 
same  law.  Clouds  of  meteoric  dust  revolve  in  fixed  orbits,  determined 
by  the  law  of  gravity  as  surely  as  the  moon  revolves  round  the  earth, 
and  the  earth  round  the  sun. 

This  is  a  conclusion  of  such  fundamental  importance  that  it  is 
desirable  to  give  the  uninitiated  reader  some  clear  idea  of  what  it  means 
and  how  it  is  arrived  at.  Newton's  great  discovery,  the  law  of  gravity, 
is  this — that  all  matter  acting  in  the  mass  attracts  other  matter  directly 
as  the  amount  of  attracting  matter,  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance.  That  is,  2  or  2,000,000  tons  attract  with  twice  the  force  of 
1  or  1,000,000  tons  at  the  same  distance,  but  with  only  one-fourth  of 
the  same  force  at  double,  and  one-ninth  at  triple  the  distance. 

How  is  this  law  proved?  This  will  be  best  answered  by  explaining 
how  it  was  discovered.  The  force  of  gravity,  or  attraction  of  the  earth 
on  bodies  at  the  earth's  surface,  is  a  known  quantity.  The  whole 
matter  in  a  spherical  body  attracts  exactly  as  if  it  were  all  collected 
at  the  centre.  The  force  of  gravity  at  the  earth's  surface  is,  therefore, 
that  of  the  earth's  mass  exerted  at  a  distance  of  about  4,000  miles,  and 
this  can  be  easily  measured  by  observing  the  space  fallen  through,  and 
the  velocity  acquired,  by  a  falling  body  in  a  given  time,  such  as  1". 

Does  the  same  force  act  at  the  distance  of  the  moon,  or  207,200 
miles  ?  This  was  the  question  Newton  asked  himself,  and  the  answer 
was  got  at  in  the  following  way.  If  we  swing  a  stone  in  a  sling  round 
our  head,  it  describes  a  circle  as  long  as  we  keep  the  string  tight,  and 
its  pull  inwards  just  balances  the  pull  of  the  stone  to  fly  outwards,  i.e., 
to  use  scientific  language,  as  long  as  the  centripetal  just  balances  the 
centrifugal  force.  But  if  we  let  go  the  string  the  stone  darts  off  in 
the  direction  in  which,  and  with  the  velocity  with  which,  it  was  moving 
when  the  centripetal  force  ceased  to  act. 

The  moon  is  such  a  sling-stone  revolving  about  the  earth.  At 
each  instant  it  is  moving  in  the  direction  of  a  tangent  to  its* orbit,  and 
would  move  on  in  a  straight  line  along  this  tangent  if  it  were  not 
deflected  from  it  by  some  other  force.  That  is,  if  the  moon  were  now 


SPACE.  15 

at  Mj,  it  would,  after  a  given  interval  of  time,  be  at  M2  if  no  force  had 

acted  on  it.     But  in  point  of  fact  it  is  not  at  M2  but  at  M3.     Therefore 

it  has  been  pulled  down  from  M2  to  M3,  or  if  you  like,  fallen  through 

the  space  M2  M3  in  the  time  in  which  it  would  have 

travelled  over  Mt  M2  with  its  velocity  at  Mj.     How 

does  this  space  correspond  with   the  space  through 

which  a  heavy  body  would   have  fallen  in  the  same 

time  at  the  earth's  surface  ?     It  corresponds  exactly, 

assuming  the  law  of  gravity  to  be,  that  it  decreases 

with  the  square  of  the  distance. 

This  may  be  taken  as  the  first  approximation,  but 
the  more  accurate  and  universal  proofs  of  the  law  are 
derived  from  mathematical  calculations  of  what  the 
nature  of  the  attractions  must  be,  in  the  case  of  the 
sun,  earth,  moon,  and  planets,  to  make  them  describe  such  elliptic 
orbits  and  observe  such  laws,  as  from  Kepler's  observations  we  know 
actually  to  be  the  case.  The  answer  here  again  is  the  law  of  gravity, 
and  no  other  possible  law,  and  this  is  confirmed  in  practice  by  the  fact 
that  we  are  able,  by  calculations  based  on  it,  to  satisfy  the  requisite  of 
safe  prophecy — that  of  knowing  beforehand,  and  to  predict  eclipses, 
comets,  transits,  and  occultations,  and  generally  to  compile  Nautical 
Almanacs,  by  which  ships  know  their  whereabouts  in  pathless  oceans. 

This,  then,  affords  us  a  first  firm  standing-point  in  any  specula- 
tions as  to  the  nature  of  the  universe.  One  great  law,  at  any  rate,  is 
universal  throughout  all  space,  and,  as  we  shall  see  later,  suns,  stars, 
and  nebulae  are  composed  of  the  same  matter  as  the  earth  and  its 
inhabitants. 

In  like  manner  comets  and  meteors,  though  presenting  in  other 
respects  phenomena  not  yet  fully  understood,  are  proved  to  obey  the 
same  laws  and  to  consist  of  the  same  matter.  Comets  are  bodies  which 
revolve  round  the  sun,  and  are  attracted  by  it  and  by  the  planets,  in 
obedience  to  the  ordinary  law  of  gravity,  though  their  density  is  so 
slight,  that  although  often  of  enormous  volume,  they  produce  no  per- 
ceptible effect  on  the  planets,  even  when  entangled  amidst  the  satellites 
of  a  planet,  as  Lascelles'  comet  was  among  those  of  Jupiter. 

Their  dimensions  may  be  judged  of  when  it  is  stated  that  the 
comet  of  1811  had  a  tail  120  millions  of  miles  in  length  and  15  millions 
of  miles  in  diameter  at  the  widest  part,  while  the  diameter  of  the  nucleus 
was  about  127,000  miles,  or  more  than  ten  times  that  of  the  earth. 
In  order  that  bodies  of  this  magnitude,  passing  near  the  earth,  should 
not  affect  its  motion  or  change  the  length  of  the  year  by  even  a  single 
second,  their  actual  substance  must  be  inconceivably  rare.  If  the  tail, 
for  instance,  of  the  comet  of  1843  had  consisted  of  the  lightest  sub- 
stance known  to  us,  hydrogen  gas,  its  mass  would  have  exceeded  that 
of  the  sun,  and  every  planet  would  have  been  dragged  from  its  orbit. 
As  Proctor  says,  therefore:  "  A  jar-full  of  air  would  probably  have  out- 
weighed hundreds  of  cubic  miles  of  that  vast  appendage  which  blazed 
across  the  skies  to  the  terror  of  the  ignorant  and  superstitious." 

The  extreme  tenuity  of  a  comet's  mass  is  also  proved  by  the  phe- 
nomenon of  the  tail,  which,  as  the  comet  approaches  the  sun,  is  thrown 
out  sometimes  to  a  length  of  90  millions  of  miles  in  a  few  hours.  And 
what  is  remarkable,  this  tail  is  thrown  out  against  the  force  of  gravity 
by  some  repulsive  force,  probably  electrical,  so  that  it  always  points 
away  from  the  sun.  Thus  a  comet  which  approaches  the  sun  with  a 


16        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

tail  behind  it,  will,  after  passing  its  perihelion,  recede  Loin  the  son 
with  its  tail  before  it,  and  this  although  the  tail  may  be  of  the  length 
of  200  millions  of  miles  as  in  the  comet  of  1843.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  hours,  therefore,  this  enormous  tail  has  been  absorbed  and  a  new 
one  started  out  in  an  opposite  direction.  And  yet,  thin  as  the  matter 
of  comets  must  be,  it  obeys  the  common  law  of  gravity,  and  whether 
the  comet  revolves  in  an  orbit  within  that  of  the  outer  planets,  or 
shoots  off  into  the  abysses  of  space  and  returns  only  after  hundreds  of 
years,  its  path  is,  at  each  instant,  regulated  by  the  same  force  as  that 
which  causes  an  apple  to  fall  to  the  ground;  and  its  matter,  however 
attenuated,  is  ordinary  matter,  and  does  not  consist  of  any  unknown 
elements.  The  spectroscope  shows  that  comets  shine  partly  by  re- 
flected sunlight  and  partly  by  light  of  their  own,  the  latter  part  being 
gaseous,  and  this  gas,  in  most  comets,  contains  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
nitrogen,  possibly  also  oxygen,  in  the  form  of  hydrocarbons  or  marsh 
gas,  cyanogen  and  possibly  oxygen  compounds  of  carbon.  One  comet 
has  recently  given  the  line  of  sodium,  and  the  presence  of  iron  is 
strongly  suspected. 

As  regards  meteors,  which  include  shooting  stars  and  aerolites,  it 
has  been  long  known,  from  actual  masses  which  have  fallen  on  the 
earth,  that  they  are  composed  of  terrestrial  matter,  principally  of  iron, 
which  has  been  partially  fused  by  the  heat  engendered  by  the  fiction 
of  the  rapid  passage  through  the  air.  The  recurrence  of  brilliant 
displays  at  regular  intervals,  as  for  instance  those  of  August  and 
November,  when  the  whole  sky  often  seems  alive  with  shooting  stars, 
had  also  been  noticed;  but  it  was  reserved  for  recent  times  to  prove 
that  these  meteor  streams  are  really  composed  of  small  planetary  bodies 
revolving  round  the  sun  in  fixed  orbits  by  the  force  of  gravity,  and  that 
their  display,  as  seen  by  us,  arises  from  the  earth  in  its  revolution 
round  the  sun  happening  to  intersect  some  of  these  meteoric  orbits, 
and  the  fiction  of  our  atmosphere  setting  fire  to  and  consuming  the 
smaller  meteors  which  appear  as  shooting  stars.  This  shows  the 
enormous  number  of  meteors  by  which  space  must  be  tenanted.  It  is 
proved  that  the  earth  encounters  more  than  a  hundred  meteor  systems, 
but  the  chance  of  any  one  ring  or  system  being  intersected  by  the 
earth  is  extremely  small,  as  the  earth  is  such  a  minute  speck  in  the 
whole  sun-surrounding  space  of  the  solar  system.  On  a  scale  on  which 
the  earth's  orbit  was  represented  by  a  circle  of  10  feet  diameter,  the 
earth  itself  would  be  only  about  ^th  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  so  that  if, 
as  astronomers  say,  the  earth  encounters  about  a  hundred  meteor 
systems  in  the  course  of  its  annual  revolution,  space  must  swarm  with 
an  innumerable  number  of  these  minute  bodies  all  revolving  round  the 
sun  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

Has  this  law  of  gravity  been  uniform  through  all  time  as  it 
undoubtedly  is  through  all  space?  We  have  every  reason  to  believe  so. 
The  law  of  gravity,  which  is  the  foundation  of  most  of  what  we  call  the 
natural  laws  of  geological  action,  has  certainly  prevailed,  as  will  be 
shown  later,  through  the  enormous  periods  of  geological  time,  and  far 
beyond  this  we  can  discern  it  operating  in  those  astronomical  changes 
by  which  cosmic  matter  has  been  condensed  into  nebulae,  nebulse  into 
suns  throwing  off  planets,  and  planets  throwing  off  satellites,  as  they 
cooled  and  contracted.  We  cannot  speak  with  quite  the  same  certainty 
of  infinite  time  as  we  can  of  infinite  space,  for  we  have  no  telescopes 
to  gauge  the  abysses  of  time,  and  no  certain  standards,  like  those  of 


TIME.  17 

the  known  dimensions  of  our  solar  system,  to  apply  to  periods  too  vast 
for  the  imagination. 

But  we  can  say  this  with  certainty,  that  the  present  law  of  gravity 
must  have  prevailed  when  the  outermost  planet  of  our  system,  Nep- 
tune, was  condensed  into  a  separate  body  and  began  revolving  in  its 
present  orbit,  and  that  it  has  continued  to  act  ever  since  ;  while,  as  a 
matter  of  probability,  it  is  as  nearly  certain  as  anything  can  be,  that 
the  law  by  which  the  apple  falls  to  the  ground  is  an  original  law  of 
matter,  and  has  existed  as  long  as  matter  has  existed. 

It  certainly  extends  through  all  space.  Double  stars  at  a  distance 
exceeding  20  millions  of  millions  of  miles  revolve  round  their  common 
centre  of  gravity  by  this  law.  Atoms  and  molecules  almost  infinitely 
smaller  than  million ths  of  millimetres  derive  from  it  their  specific 
weights  with  as  much  certainty  as  if  they  were  pounds  or  hundred- 
weights. 

What  space  and  matter  really  may  be,  we  do  not  know,  and  if  we 
attempt  to  reason  about  their  essence  and  origin,  or  quit  the  region 
of  science  based  on  fact,  we  get  into  the  misty  realms  of  metaphysics, 
where,  like  Milton's  fallen  angels,  we 

Find  no  end  in  wandering  mazes  lost. 

But  this  we  do  know  of  a  certainty,  that  be  matter  and  space  what 
they  may,  they  are  subject  to  this  one,  uniform,  all-pervading  law;  and 
attract,  have  always  attracted,  and  will  always  attract,  directly  as  the 
mass  of  the  attracting  matter  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance in  space  at  which  the  attraction  acts. 


CHAPTER  II. 
TIME. 

EOLOGY  has  done  for  time  what  astronomy  has  for  space — it 
f  has  expanded  the  limited  ideas  derived  from  natural  impression 
and  early  tradition,  into  those  of  an  almost  infinite  duration.  This 
result  is  so  important  that  it  is  desirable  that  all  educated  persons, 
without  being  professed  geologists,  should  have  some  clear  idea  of  the 
nature  of  the  conclusions  and  of  the  evidences  on  which  they  rest. 

This  I  will  endeavor  to  give. 

When  we  come  to  examine  the  structure  of  the  earth— or  rather 
of  the  outer  crust  of  the  earth  which  we  inhabit — with  the  care  and 
precision  of  scientific  methods,  we  find  that  it  is  not  of  uniform  com- 
position, but  consists  mainly  of  distinct  layers,  or  strata,  lying  one 
over  the  other.  This  is  true  not  only  of  the  larger  beds,  or  distinct 
formations,  but  of  the  details  of  each  formation,  many  of  which  are 
built  up  as  regularly  as  the  layers  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  while  others 
are  made  up  of  layers  no  thicker  than  the  leaves  of  a  book. 

Now  consider  what  this  fact  of  stratification  implies.  In  the  first 
place  it  implies  deposit  from  water,  for  there  is  no  other  agency  by 
which  materials  can  be  sorted  out  and  thrown  down  in  horizontal 
layers,  while  this  agency  is  now  doing  the  same  thing  every  day  and 
all  over  the  world.  The  Rhone  flows  into  the  lake  of  Geneva  a  turbid 
stream,  and  flows  out  of  it  as  clear  as  crystal.  All  the  matter  it  brings 


18        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

in  is  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  and  in  course  of  time  will  fill 
it  up.  This  deposit  varies  with  every  alternation  of  flood  and  drought; 
the  river  depositing  sometimes  boulders  and  coarse  gravel,  sometimes 
shingle,  sand,  or  fine  mud,  and  carrying  this  material  sometimes  to  a 
greater  and  sometimes  to  a  less  distance,  according  to  the  velocity  of 
the  stream. 

Ages  hence,  when  the  lake  has  been  converted  into  dry  land,  it 
will  be  as  certain,  whenever  a  pit  is  dug  or  a  well  sunk  in  it,  that  it  was 
the  work  of  a  river  flowing  into  a  lake,  as  it  is  to-day,  when  we  can  see 
them  at  work. 

And  what  is  true  of  the  Khone  and  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  is  true  on 
a  larger  scale  of  the  .Ganges,  the  Mississippi,  and  of  every  sea  or 
ocean,  with  every  river  or  torrent  pouring  into  it. 

Again,  the  sea  is  perpetually  wearing  away  the  coasts  of  all  lands, 
and,  where  the  cliffs  are  soft  and  the  tides  and  currents  strong,  at  a 
very  rapid  rate.  The  materials  swallowed  up  are  rolled  as  shingle, 
ground  into  sand,  or  floated  as  fine  mud,  and  all  finally  assorted  and 
laid  down  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  not  in  a  confused  heap,  but  in 
regular  succession.  On  some  of  them,  shell-fish  and  other  marine 
creatures  live  and  die  for  generations,  and  their  remains  are  covered 
over  by  fresh  sands  or  clays,  and  preserved  for  future  geologists.  All 
this  is  going  on  now,  and  when  we  examine  the  rocks  we  find  that 
precisely  the  same  sort  of  thing  has  been  going  on  from  the  newest  to 
the  oldest  strata.  With  the  exception  of  a  comparatively  small  amount 
of  igneous  rock,  which  has  boiled  up  from  deep  sources  of  molten 
matter,  and  been  poured  out  in  sheets  of  lava,  or  masses  of  trap, 
porphyry,  and  granite,  according  to  the  amount  of  pressure  it  has 
undergone  and  the  time  it  has  taken  to  cool  and  crystallize,  all  the 
earth's  surface  may  be  said  to  consist  of  stratified  matter,  showing 
clear  signs  of  having  been  deposited  from  water.  Some  of  the  oldest 
rocks,  such  as  gneiss,  may  be  a  little  doubtful,  as  they  have  clearly  been 
subjected  to  great  heat  under  great  pressure,  until  they  became  plastic 
enough  to  crystallize  as  they  cooled,  and  thus  destroy  any  fossils 
embedded  in  them  and  obliterate  most  of  the  ordinary  signs  of  strati- 
fication. But  the  opinion  of  the  best  geologists  is  that  they  were 
originally  stratified,  and  have  become  what  is  called  "metamorphic,"  or 
changed  by  heat  and  pressure  into  the  semblance  of  igneous  rocks. 
But  even  if  these  are  not  included,  enough  remains  to  justify  the 
general  assertion  that  the  outer  crust  of  the  earth,  as  known  to  us,  is 
made  up  mainly  of  stratified  materials  which  have  been  deposited  from 
water. 

Now  this  implies  another  most  important  fact,  viz.,  that  there  must 
have  been  waste  or  denudation  of  existing  land  corresponding  to  the 
deposit  of  stratified  materials  under  water.  Water  cannot  generate 
these  materials,  and  every  square  mile  of  such  strata,  say  10  feet  thick, 
implies  the  removal  of  10  feet  from  a  square  mile  of  land  surface  by 
rains  and  rivers,  or  of  an  equivalent  amount  of  cubical  content  in  some 
other  way,  as  by  the  erosion  of  a  coast  line.  This  is  a  very  important 
consideration  when  we  come  to  estimate  the  time  required  for  the 
formation  of  such  a  thickness  of  stratified  beds  as  we  find  existing. 
There  must  have  been  a  fundamental  crystalline  rock  as  the  earth 
cooled  down  from  a  fluid  state  and  acquired  a  solid  crust,  and  this 
rock  must  have,  been  worn  down  by  primeval  seas  and  rivers  as  the 
progressive  cooling  admitted  of  the  condensation  of  aqueous  vapor  into 


TIME.  19 

-water.  The  waste  of  this  primitive  crust  must  have  been  deposited  in 
strata  at  the  bottom  of  those  seas  in  thick  masses,  covering  the  original 
rock,  and  these  again  must  have  been  partly  crystallized  by  heat  and 
pressure,  and  over  and  over  again  upheaved  and  submerged,  and 
themselves  worn  down  by  fresh  erosion,  forming  fresh  deposits  which 
underwent  a  repetition  of  the  same  process. 

A  third  important  inference  from  the  fact  of  stratification  is  that 
all  strata  must  have  been  originally  deposited  horizontally,  or  very 
nearly  so,  and  in  such  order  that  the  lowest  is  the  oldest. 

Suppose  we  fill  a  jar  with  water,  and  put  some  white  sand  into 
it,  and  when  that  has  subsided  to  the  bottom  and  the  water  is  clear, 
some  yellow  sand,  and  again  some  red  sand,  it  is  clear  that  we  shall 
have  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar  three  horizontal  deposits  or  strata,  one 
white,  one  yellow,  and  one  red,  and  that  by  no  conceivable  means  can 
the  order  in  which  they  were  deposited  have  been  other  than  first 
white,  secondly  yellow,  and  lastly  red.  This  law,  therefore,  is  invaria- 
ble, that  wherever  it  is  possible  to  trace  a  series  of  strata  lying  one 
above  the  other,  the  lowest  is  the  oldest,  and  the  highest  the  youngest 
in  point  of  time. 

If,  therefore,  all  the  great  formations,  from  the  old  Lauren tian 
up  to  the  newest  Tertiary,  had  been  deposited  uniformly  all  over  the 
world,  and  had  remained  undisturbed,  and  we  could  have  seen  them 
in  one  vertical  section  in  a  cliff  twenty-five  miles  high — for  that  is 
about  their  total  known  thickness — we  should  have  been  able  without 
further  difficulty  to  determine  their  order  of  succession  and  respective 
magnitudes. 

But  this  is  plainly  impossible,  for  the  deposits  going  on  at  any 
one  time  are  of  very  different  character.  For  instance,  we  have  at 
present  the  Globigerina  ooze  gradually  filling  the  depths  of  the  Atlan- 
tic with  a  deposit  resembling  chalk;  the  Gulfs  of  Bengal  and  Mexico 
silting  up  with  fine  clay  from  river  deposits ;  vast  tracts  in  the  Pacific, 
Indian  Ocean,  and  Red  Sea,  covered  with  coral  and  the  debris  of  coral- 
reefs.  How  could  these,  if  upheaved  into  dry  land  and  explored  by 
future  geologists,  be  identified  as  having  been  formed  contempora- 
neously ? 

Suppose  that  coins  of  Victoria  had  been  dropped  in  each  of  them, 
the  geologist  who  discovered  these  coins  would  have  no  difficulty  in 
concluding  that  the  strata  in  which  they  were  found  were  all  formed 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  petrified  shells  and  other  remains 
found  in  geological  strata  are  such  coins.  Every  great  formation  has 
had  its  own  characteristic  fauna  and  flora,  or  aggregate  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  varying  slowly  from  one  geological  age  to  another,  and 
linked  to  the  past  and  future  by  some  persistent  types  and  forms,  but 
still  with  such  a  preponderance  of  characteristic  fossils  as  to  enable 
us  to  assign  the  rocks  in  which  they  occur  to  their  proper  place  in 
the  volume  of  the  geological  record.  Innumerable  observations  have 
shown  that  we  can  rely,  with  absolute  confidence,  on  the  fossils 
embedded  in  the  different  strata  of  the  earth's  crust  as  tests  of  the 
period  to  which  they  belong,  however  different  the  strata  may  be  in 
mineral  composition. 

The  next  question  is  how  we  can  ascertain  the  thickness  and 
order  of  succession  of  these  strata.  We  have  seen  that  all  stratified 
rocks  were  originally  deposited  from  water  and  therefore  horizontally. 
Had  they  remained  so,  in  the  first  place  the  process  of  forming  strati- 


20        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

fied  rocks  must  long  ago  have  come  to  an  end,  for  all  the  land  surface 
must  have  been  worn  down  to  the  sea  level,  and  with  no  more  land 
to  be  denuded,  deposition  must  have  ceased  at  an  early  period  of 
the  earth's  history.  And,  in  the  second  place,  we  could  have  known 
nothing  more  of  the  earth's  crust  than  we  saw  on  the  surface,  and  in 
the  shallow  pits  and  borings  we  could  sink  below  it.  But  earthquakes 
and  volcanoes,  and  the  various  fractures  and  pressures  due  to  sub- 
terranean heat  and  secular  contraction  and  cooling,  have  been  at  work 
counteracting  the  effects  of  denudation,  and  causing:  elevations  and 
depressions  by  which  the  inequalities  of  the  earth's  surface  have  been 
renewed,  the  balance  between  sea  and  land  maintained,  and  strata, 
originally  horizontal  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  upheaved  until  sea- 
shells  are  found  at  the  top  of  high  mountains,  and  we  can  walk  for 
miles  over  their  upturned  edges. 

Any  one  who  wishes  to  understand  how  geologists  have  been  able 
to  measure  such  a  thickness  of  the  earth's  crust,  has  only  to  take  a 
book  open  at  page  1  and  lay  it  flat  before  him.  He  can  see  nothing 
but  that  one  page;  but  if  he  turns  up  the  pages  on  the  right-hand 
side  of  the  book  until  their  edges  become  horizontal,  he  can  pass  over 
them  and  count  perhaps  500  pages  in  the  space  of  a  couple  of  inches. 

This  is  precisely  what  geologists  have  been  able  to  do  at  various- 
points  of  the  earth's  surface  where  the  upturned  edges  of  the  p  iges 
of  its  history  are  exposed,  and  they  come  out,  one  behind  the  other, 
in  the  due  succession  in  which  they  were  written  by  Nature.  For 
instance,  in  travelling  from  east  to  west  in  England  we  pass  continu- 
ally from  newer  to  older  formations — Chalk  comes  in  from  below 
Tertiary;  Oolite  and  Lias  from  below  Chalk;  then  Permian  or  New  Red 
Sandstone;  Carbonifr  rous,  including  the  Coal  measures;  Devonian  or 
Old  Red  Sandstone;  Silurian,  Cambrian,  and  in  the  extreme  north-west 
of  Scotland  and  the  Hebrides,  oldest  of  all  the  Lauren tian. 

There  are  somo  omissions  and  interpolations,  but,  in  a  general 
way,  it  may  be  said  that  within  the  bounds  of  the  British  Empire  we 
have  such  a  view  of  Nature's  volume  as  would  be  got,  in  the  case  1 
have  supposed,  by  travelling  over  its  upturned  edges  from  page  1  to 
page  500.  And  if  each  of  the  great  formations  be  t-iken  as  a  separate 
chapter,  each  chapter  will  be  found  to  be  made  up  of  a  number  of  pages, 
each  with  its  own  letter-press  and  illustrations,  though  connected  with 
the  pages  before  and  after  it  by  the  thread  of  the  continuous  common 
subject  of  their  proper  chapter;  as  the  chapters  again  are  connected  by 
the  continuous  common  subject-matter  of  the  complete  volume.  It 
must  not  be  supposed  that  the  volume  is  anything  like  perfect.  We 
have  'to  piece  it  together  from  fragments  found  in  the  limited  number 
of  countries  which  have  thus  far  been  scientifically  explored,  and  which 
do  not  constitute  more  than  a  small  part  of  the  earth's  surface.  We 
know  nothing  of  what  is  below  the  oceans  which  cover  three-fourths 
of  that  surface,  and  there  are  great  gaps  in  the  record  during  times 
when  portions  of  the  surface  were  dry  land,  and  consequently  no 
deposit  of  strata  or  preservation  of  fossils  was  possible.  Still  a  great 
deal  has  been  accomplished,  and  the  general  result,  as  given  by  common 
consent  of  the  best  geologists,  is  as  follows: 

The  total  thickness  of  known  strata  is  about  130,000  feet  or  twenty- 
five  miles,  or  the  ^th  part  of  the  distance  from  the  earth's  surface  to 
its  centre.  Of  this,  about  80,000  feet  belong  to  the  Laurentian,  which 
is  the  oldest  known  stratified  deposit;  18,000  to  the  Cambrian,  and 


TIME.  21 

'22,000  to  the  Silurian.  These  form  together  what  is  known  as  the 
-Primary  or  Palaeozoic  Epoch. 

In  the  lowest,  the  Laurentian,  the  only  faint  trace  of  life  discov- 
ered is  that  of  the  Eozoon  Canadensc,  which  is  considered  to  be  an 
undoubted  petrifaction  of  a  foraminiferous  living  organism  with  a  cham- 
bered shell. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  these  earliest  formations 
have  been  so  changed  by  slow  crystallization  under  great  heat  and 
pressure  that  all  fossils  and  nearly  all  traces  of  stratification  must  have 
been  obliterated. 

In  the  Cambrian  and  Lower  Silurian  traces  of  life  become  more 
frequent,  especially  uf  low  forms  of  sea-weeds,  and  in  the  Upper  Silurian 
we  find  an  abundance  of  life,  consisting  of  Crustacea,  shell-fish,  and  a  few 
true  fish  in  the  upper  strata.  Some  of  these  shells,  as  the  Lingula,  have 
continued  without  much  change  up  to  the  present  time;  and  on  the 
whole  we  find  ourselves  in  the  Silurian  period,  if  not  earlier,  in  presence 
of  a  state  of  things  in  which  substantially  present  causes  operated  and 
present  conditions  were  in  force.  Bains  fell,  winds  blew,  rivers  ran, 
waves  eroded  cliffs,  shell-fish  lived  and  died,  and  crabs  and  sand-worms 
crawled  about  on  shores  left  dry  by  each  tide,  very  much  as  is  the  case 
at  present. 

The  next  great  divison,  which  got  the  name  of  Primary  before  the 
existence  of  fossils  was  known  in  the  older  or  Palaeozoic  division,  com- 
prises the  Devonian  or  Old  Red  Sandstone;  the  Carboniferous  which 
includes  the  coal;  and  the  Permian  or  New  Bed  Sandstone.  The  aver- 
age thickness  of  these  three  systems  taken  together  is  about  42,000 
feet.  It  may  be  called  the  era  of  Fern  Forests  and  of  Fish,  the 
former  being  the  principal  source  of  our  supplies  of  coal,  and  the 
latter  being  extremely  abundant  within  the  Devonian  and  Permian 
formations. 

The  third  great  division  is  formed  by  the  Secondary  group,  which 
includes  the  Triassic,  the  Jura,  and  the  Cretaceous  or  Chalk  systems, 
and  has  an  average  thickness  of  about  15,000  feet.  This  epoch  is 
emphatically  the  age  of  Beptiles  as  the  preceding  one  was  that  of 
Fish,  and  the  prevailing  vegetation  is  no  longer  one  of  ferns  and 
mosses,  but  of  Gymnosperms,  or  plants  having  naked  seeds,  the  most 
important  class  of  which  is  that  of  the  Coniferse  or  Pine  tribe.  Dur- 
ing this  period  the  Plesiosauri,  Ichthyosauri,  and  other  gigantic  sea- 
dragons  abounded  in  the  oceans;  colossal  land-dragons,  such  as  the 
Dinosauri,  occupied  the  continents,  and  Pterodactyls,  a  remarkable 
form  of  carnivorous  flying  lizards,  ruled  the  air.  Swarms  of  other 
reptiles,  nearly  related  to  the  present  lizards,  crocodiles,  and  turtles, 
abounded  both  in  the  sea  and  land.  A  few  traces  of  mammals  and 
birds  show  that  these  orders  had  then  come  into  existence,  just  as  a 
few  traces  of  reptiles  are  found  in  the  Primary  and  of  fish  in  the 
Palaeozoic  strata,  but  the  few  mammalian  remains  found  are  of  small 
animals  of  the  marsupial  or  lowest  type,  and  the  birds  are  of  a  transi- 
tion type  between  reptiles  and  true  birds.  This  epoch  concludes  with 
the  Chalk  formation,  which  is  one  of  deep-sea  deposit,  where  no  trace 
of  terrestrial  life  can  be  expected. 

Above  this  comes  the  Tertiary  epoch,  when  the  present  order, 
both  of  vegetable  and  animal  life,  is  fairly  inaugurated;  mammals 
predominate  over  other  forms  of  vertebrate  animals;  existing  order, 
and  species  begin  to  appear  and  increase  rapidly;  and  vegetation 


22         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

consists  mainly  of  Angiosperms,  or  plants  with  covered  seeds,  as  in  our 
present  forests.  The  total  thickness  of  these  strata,  from  the  lowest 
or  Eocene,  to  the  end  of  the  uppermost  or  Pliocene,  is  about  3,000 
feet.  Above  this  comes  the  Quar ternary,  or  recent  period,  which 
comprises  the  superficial  strata  of  modern  formation,  and  is  character- 
ized by  the  undoubted  existence  of  maei  and  of  animal  species,  which 
either  now  exist  or  have  become  extinct  in  quite  recent  geological 
times. 

The  details  of  this  and  of  the  Tertiary  Epoch  will  be  more  fully 
considered  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  antiquity  of  man,  with'  which 
they  are  closely  connected.  But  for  the  present  object,  which  is  that 
of  ascertaining  some  standard  of  time  for  the  immense  series  of 
ages  proved  by  geology  to  have  elapsed  since  the  earth  assumed  its 
present  condition,  became  subject  to  existing  laws  and  fitted  to  be  the 
abode  of  life,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  older  strata. 

The  best  idea  of  the  enormous  intervals  of  time  required  for 
geological  changes  will  be  derived  from  the  coal  measures.  These 
consist  of  part  only  of  one  geological  formation  known  as  the 
Carboniferous.  They  are  made  up  of  sheets  or  seams  of  condensed 
vegetable  matter,  varying  in  thickness  from  less  than  an  inch  to  as 
much  as  thirty  feet,  and  lying  one  above  another,  separated  by  beds  of 
rocks  of  various  composition.  As  a  rule,  every  seam  of  coal  rests  upon 
a  bed  of  clay,  known  as  the  "under-clay,"  and  is  covered  by  a  bed  of 
sandstone  or  shale.  These  alternations  of  clay,  coal,  and  rock,  are 
often  repeated  a  great  many  times,  and  in  some  sections  in  South 
Wales  and  Nova  Scotia,  there  are  as  many  as  eighty  or  a  hundred 
seams  of  coal,  each  with  its  own  under-clay  below  and  sandstone  or 
shale  above.  Some  of  the  coal  seams  are  as  much  as  thirty  feet 
thick,  and  the  total  thickness  of  the  coal  measures  is,  in  some  cases,  as. 
much  as  14,000  feet. 

Now  consider  what  these  facts  mean.  Every  under-clay  was 
clearly  once  a  surface  soil  on  which  the  forest  vegetation  grew,  whose 
accumulated  debris  forms  the  overlying  seam  of  coal.  The  under- clays 
are  full  of  the  fibres  of  roots,  and  the  stools  of  trees  which  once  grew 
on  them,  are  constantly  found  in  situ,  with  their  roots  attached  just  as 
they  stood  when  the  tree  fell,  and  added  to  the  accumulation  of 
vegetable  matter,  which  in  modern  times  forms  peat,  and  in  more 
ancient  days,  under  different  conditions  of  heat  and  pressure,  took  the 
more  consolidated  form  of  coal. 

When  these  vegetable  remains  are  examined  with  the  aid  of  the 
microscope  it  is  found  that  these  ancient  forests  consisted  mainly  of 
trees  like  gigantic  club-mosses,  mares'-tails,  and  tree  ferns,  with  a  few 
resembling  yewrs  and  firs.  But  in  many  cases  the  bulk  of  the  coal  is 
composed  of  the  spores  and  seeds  of  these  ferns  and  club-mosses, 
which  were  ripened  and  shed  every  year,  and  gradually  accumulated 
into  a  vegetable  mould,  just  as  fallen  leaves,  beech-mast,  and  other 
debris  gradually  form  a  soil  in  our  existing  forests. 

The  time  required  must  have  been  very  great  to  accumulate 
vegetable  matter,  principally  composed  of  fine  spore  dust,  to  a  depth 
sufficient  under  great  compression  to  give  even  a  foot  of  solid  coal. 
Dr.  Dawson,  who  has  devoted  great  attention  to  the  coal-fields  of 
America,  says:  "  We  may  safely  assert  that  every  foot  of  thickness  of 
pure  bituminous  coal  implies  the  quiet  growth  and  fall  of  at  least  fifty 
generations  of  Sigillaria,  and  therefore  an  undisturbed  condition  of 


TIME.  23 

forest  growth,  enduring  through  many  centuries."  But  this  is  only 
the  first  step  in  the  measure  of  the  time  required  for  the  formation 
of  the  coal  measures.  Each  seam  of  coal  is,  as  we  have  seen,  covered 
by  a  bed  of  sand  or  shale,  i.  e.,  of  water-borne  materials.  How  can 
this  be  accounted  for?  Evidently  in  one  way  only — that  the  land  sur- 
face in  which  the  forest  grew  subsided  gradually  until  it  became  first 
a  marsh,  and  then  a  lagoon  or  shallow  estuary,  which  silted  up  by 
degrees  with  deposits  of  sand  or  mud,  and,  finally,  was  upraised  until 
its  surface  became  dry  land,  in  which  a  second  forest  grew,  whose 
debris  formed  a  second  coal  seam.  And  so  on,  over  and  over  again, 
until  the  whole  series  of  coal  measures  had  been  accumulated,  when 
this  alternation  of  slight  submergences  and  slight  rises  came  to  an 
end,  and  some  more  decided  movement  of  the  earth's  surface  in  the 
locality  brought  on  a  different  state  of  things.  This  is  in  fact  exactly 
what  we  see  taking  place  on  a  smaller  scale  in  recent  times  in  such 
deposits  as  those  of  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  where  a  well  sunk 
at  New  Orleans  passes  through  a  succession  of  cypress  swamps  and 
forest  growths,  exactly  like  those  now  growing  on  the  surface,  which 
are  piled  one  above  the  other,  and  separated  by  deposits  of  river  silt, 
showing  a  long  alternation  of  periods  of  rest  when  forests  grew,  fol- 
lowed by  periods  of  subsidence  when  they  were  flooded  and  their 
remains  were  embedded  in  silt. 

Starting  on  Dr.  Dawson's  assumption  that  one  foot  of  coal 
represents  fifty  generations  of  coal  plants,  and  that  each  generation 
of  coal'  plants  took  ten  years  to  come  to  maturity,  an  assumption 
which  is  certainly  very  moderate,  and  taking  the  actually  measured 
thickness  of  the  coal  measures  in  some  localities  at  12,000  feet,  Pro- 
fessor Huxley  calculates  that  the  time  represented  by  the  Coal  forma- 
tion alone  would  be  six  millions  of  years.  Such  a  figure  is,  of  course, 
only  a  rough  approximation,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  show  that  when  we 
come  to  deal  with  geological  time,  the  standard  by  which  we  must 
measure  is  one  of  which  the  unit  is  a  million  of  years. 

This  standard  is  confirmed  by  a  variety  of  other  considerations. 
Take  the  case  of  the  Chalk  formation. 

Chalk  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  the  microscopic  shells  of 
minute  organisms,  such  as  now  float  in  the  upper  strata  of  our  great 
oceans,  and  by  their  subsidence,  in  the  form  of  an  impalpable  shell- 
dust,  accumulate  what  is  called  the  "  Globigerina  ooze,"  which  is 
brought  up  by  soundings  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  from  great 
depths.  In  fact,  we  may  say  that  a  chalk  formation  is  now  going  on 
in  the  depths  of  existing  oceans,  and  conversely  that  the  old  chalk, 
which  now  forms  hills  and  elevated  downs,  was  certainly  deposited 
at  the  bottom  of  similar  deep  oceans  of  the  Cretaceous  period.  The 
rate  of  deposit  must  have  been  extremely  slow,  certainly  much  slower 
than  that  of  the  deposit  of  the  much  grosser  matter  brought  down 
by  the  Nile  in  its  annual  inundations,  the  growth  of  which  has  been 
estimated  from  actual  measurement  at  about  three  inches  per  cen- 
tury. If  one  inch  per  century  were  the  rate  of  accumulation  of  this 
microscopic  shell-dust,  subsiding  slowly  to  depths  of  two  or  three 
miles  over  areas  as  large  as  Europe,  it  would  take  1,200  years  to  form 
a  foot  of  chalk,  and  1,200,000  years  to  form  1,000  feet.  Now  there 
are  places  where  the  thickness  of  the  Cretaceous  formation,  exposed 
by  the  edges  of  its  upturned  strata,  exceeds  5,000  feet,  so  that  this 
gives  an  approximation  very  similar  to  that  furnished  by  the  coal 
measures. 


24        MODERX  SCIENCE  AXD   MODERX  THOUGHT. 

We  have  thus,  on  a  rough  approximation,  a  minimum  period 
of  about  6,000,000  years  for  the  accumulation  of  a  single  member 
of  one  of  the  separate  formations  into  which  the  total  130,000  feet  of 
measured  strata  are  subdivided.  But  this  takes  110  account  of  the  long 
periods  during  which  no  accumulation  took  place  at  the  localities  in 
question,  and  of  the  long  pauses  which  must  have  ensued  between  each 
movement  of  elevation  and  submergence,  and  especially  between  the 
disappearance  of  an  old  an:l  appearance  of  an  almost  entirely  new 
epoch,  with  difterent  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life.  We  may  be 
certain  also  that  we  are  far  from  knowing  the  total  thickness  of  strata 
which  will  be  disclosed  when  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  comes  to 
be  explored.  All  we  can  say  is  that  we  have  fragmentary  pages 
left  in  the  geological  record  for,  at  the  very  least,  100  millions  of 
years,  and  that  probably  the  lost  pages  are  quite  as  numerous  as  those 
of  wrhich  we  have  an  imperfect  knowledge. 

Sir  Charles  Lyell,  the  highest  authority  on  the  subject,  is  in- 
clined to  estimate  the  minimum  of  geological  time  at  200  millions  of 
years,  and  few  geologists  will  say  that  his  estimate  appears  excessive. 

Another  test  of  the  vast  duration  of  geological  time  is  afforded  by 
the  oscillations  of  the  earth's  surface.  At  first  sight  we  are  apt  to 
consider  the  earth  as  the  stable  and  the  sea  as  the  unstable  element. 
But  in  reality  it  is  exactly  the  reverse.  Land  has  been  perpetually 
rising  and  falling  while  the  level  of  the  sea  has  remained  the-  same. 
This  is  easily  proved  by  the  presence  of  sea-shells  and  other  marine 
remains  in  strata  which  now  form  high  mountains.  In  the  case  of 
chalk,  for  instance,  there  must  have  been  in  England  a  change  of 
relative  level  of  sea  and  land  or  more  than  two  milts  of  vertical  height, 
between  the  original  formation  of  the  chalk  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep 
ocean  and  its  present  position  in  the  North  and  South  Downs.  In 
other  cases  the  change  of  level  is  even  more  conspicuous.  The  Num- 
mulite  limestone,  which  is  formed  like  chalk  from  an  accumulation  of 
the  minute  shells  of  low  organisms  floating  in  the  oceans  of  the 
early  Tertiary  period,  is  found  in  mountain  masses,  and  has  been 
elevated  to  a  height  of  10,000  feet  and  more  in  the  Alps  and 
Himalayas. 

On  a  smaller  scale,  and  in  more  recent  times,  raised  beaches  with 
existing  shells  and  lines  of  cliffs  and  caves,  are  found  at  various  heights 
above  the  existing  sea-level  of  many  of  the  coasts  of  Britain,  Scandi- 
navia, Italy,  South  America,  and  other  countries. 

Now  the  first  question  is,  were  these  changes  caused  by  the  land 
rising  or  by  the  sea  falling?  The  answer  is,  by  the  land  rising  Had 
they  been  caused  by  the  sea  standing  at  a  higher  level  it  must  have 
stood  everywhere  at  this  level,  at  any  rate  in  the  same  hemisphere  and 
anywhere  near  the  same  latitude.  But  there  are  large  tracts  of  land 
which  have  never  been  submerged  since  remote  geological  periods; 
and  in  recent  times  there  is  conclusive  evidence  that  the  changes  of 
level  of  sea  and  land  have  been  partial  and  not  general.  Thus  in  the 
well-known  instance  of  the  columns  of  the  ruined  temple  of  Serapis  at 
Pozzuoli  in  the  Bay  of  Naples,  which  forms  the  illustration  on  the 
title  page  of  Lyell's  " Principles  of  Geology,"  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  since  the  temple  was  built,  either  the  sea  must  have  risen  and 
since  fallen,  or  the  land  sunk  and  since  risen,  at  least  twenty  feet  since 
the  temple  was  built  less  than  2.000  years  ago,  for  up  to  this  height  the 
marble  columns  tiro  riddled  by  borings  of  marine  shells,  whose  valves 


TIME.  25 

;aro  still  to  be  seen  in  tlie  holes  they  excavated.  But  an  elevation  of 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  of  twenty  feet  would  have  submerged 
a  great  part  of  Egypt,  and  other  low-lying  lands  on  the  borders  of 
that  sea,  where  we  know  that  no  such  irruptions  of  salt  water  have 
taken  place  within  historical,  or  even  within  recent  geological  times. 

The  conclusion  is  therefore  certain,  that  the  knd  at  tin's  particular 
spot  must  have  sunk  twenty  feet,  and  again  risen  as  much,  so  as  to 
bring  back  the  floor  of  the  temple  to  its  present  position,  which  stood 
one  hundred  years  ago  just  above  the  sea-level,  and  that  so  gradually 
as  not  to  throw  down  the  three  columns  which  are  still  standing.  A 
slow  subsidence  has  since  set  in  and  is  now  going  on,  so  that  the  floor 
Js  now  two  or  three  feet  below  the  sea-level. 

Similar  proofs  may  be  multiplied  to  any  extent.  Along  the  coasts 
of  the  British  Islands  we  find,  in  some  places  submarine  forests  show- 
ing subsidence,  in  others  raised  beaches  showing  elevation,  but  they 
are  not  continuous  at  the  same  level.  Along  the  east  coast  of  Scotland 
there  is  ^  remarkable  raised  beach  at  a  level  of  about  twenty-four  feet 
above  the  pr&sent  one,  showing  in  many  places  lines  of  cliff,  sea-worn 
caves,  and  outlying  stacks  and  skerries,  exactly  like  those  of  the 
^resent  coast,  though  with  green  fields  or  sandy  links  at  their  base, 
instead  of  the  waves  of  the  German  Ocean.  But  as  we  go  north  this 
inland  cliff  gets  lower  and  gradually  dies  out,  and  when  we  get  into 
the  extreme  north,  among  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands,  there  are 
no  signs  of  raised  beaches,  and  everything  points  towards  the  recent 
period  having  been  one  of  subsidence. 

Again,  in  Sweden,  where  marks  were  cut  in  rocks  in  sheltered 
situations  on  the  tideless  Baltic  more  than  a  century  ago,  so  as  to  test 
the  question  of  an  alleged  elevation  of  the  land,  it  has  been  clearly 
shown  that,  in  the  extreme  north  of  Sweden,  the  marks  have  risen 
nearly  seven  feet,  while  in  the  central  portion  of  the  country  they  have 
neither  risen  nor  fallen,  and  in  the  southern  province  of  Scania  they 
have  fallen. 

This  would  be  clearly  impossible  if  the  sea  and  not  the  land  had 
been  the  unstable  element,  and  apparent  elevations  and  depressions 
had  been  due  to  a  general  fall  or  rise  in  the  level  of  all  the  seas  of  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

In  fact,  the  more  we  study  geology  the  more  we  are  impressed 
with  the  fact  that  the  normal  state  of  the  earth  is,  and  has  always 
been,  one  of  incessant  changes.  Water,  raised  by  evaporation  from 
the  seas,  falls  as  rain  or  snow  on  land,  wastes  it  away  and  carries  it 
down  from  higher  to  lower  levels,  to  be  ultimately  deposited  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  This  goes  on  constantly,  and  if  there  were  no 
compensating  action,  as  the  seas  cover  a  much  larger  area  than  the 
lands,  all  land  would  ultimately  disappear,  and  one  universal  ocean  cover 
the  globe.  But  inward  heat  supplies  the  compensating  action,  and  new 
lands  rise  and  new  mountain  chains  are  upheaved  to  supply  the  place 
of  those  which  disappear. 

This  inward  heat  of  the  earth  is  not  a  mere  theory  but  an 
ascertained  fact;  for  as  we  descend  from  the  surface  in  deep  mines  or 
borings,  we  find  the  temperature  actually  does  increase  at  a  rate  which 
varies  somewhat  in  different  localities,  but  which  averages  about  1° 
.Fahrenheit  for  every  60  feet  of  depth.  At  this  rate  of  increase  water 
would  boil  at  a  depth  of  10,000  feet,  and  iron  and  all  other  metals  be 
melted  before  we  reached  100,000  feet.  What  actually  occurs  at  great 


26        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

depths  we  do  not  know  with  any  certainty,  for  we  are  not  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  the  laws  under  which  matter  may  behave  when  under 
enormous  heat  combined  with  enormous  pressure.  But  we  do  know 
from  volcanoes  and  earthquakes  that  masses  of  molten  rocks  and  of 
imprisoned  gases  exist  in  certain  localities,  at  depths  below  the  surface 
which,  although  large  compared  with  our  deepest  pits,  are  almost 
infinitesimally  small  compared  with  the  total  depth  of  4,000  miles 
from  that  surface  to  the  earth's  centre. 

This  much  is  clear,  that,  in  order  to  account  for  observed  facts, 
we  must  consider  the  extreme  outer  crust,  or  surface  of  the  earth  as 
known  to  us,  as  resting  on  something  which  is  liable  to  expand  and 
contract  slowly  with  variations  of  heat,  and  occasionally,  when  the 
tension  becomes  great,  to  give  violent  shocks  to  the  outer  crust,  send- 
ing earthquake  waves  through  it,  and  to  send  up  gases  and  molten 
lava  through  volcanoes,  along  lines  of  fissure,  and  at  points  of  least 
resistance.  It  is  clear,  also,  that  these  movements  are  not  uniform, 
but  that  one  part  of  the  earth's  surface  may  be  rising  while  another  is 
sinking,  and  portions  of  it  may  be  slowly  tilting  over,  so  that  as  one 
end  sinks  the  other  rises. 

The  best  comparison  that  can  be  made  is  to  a  sheet  of  ice  which 
has  been  much  skated  over  and  cracked  in  numerous  directions,  so  as 
to  have  become  a  sort  of  mosaic  of  ice  fragment,  which,  when  a  thaw 
sets  in  and  the  ice  gets  sloppy,  rise  and  fall  with  slightly  different 
motions  as  a  skater,  gliding  over  them,  varies  the  pressure,  and 
occasionally  give  a  crack  and  let  water  rise  through  from  below  in  the 
line  of  fissure.  The  difficulty  will  not  seem  so  great  if  we  consider 
that  the  rocks  which  form  the  earth's  crust  are  for  the  most  part 
elastic,  and  that  an  amount  of  elevation  which  seems  large  in  itself  does 
not  necessarily  imply  a  very  steep  gradient.  Thus,  if  the  elevation 
which  towards  the  close  of  the  Glacial  period  carried  a  bed  of  existing 
sea-shells  of  Arctic  type  to  the  top  of  the  hill,  Moel  Tryfen,  in  North 
Wales,  which  is  1,200  feet  high,  were,  say  one  of  1,500  feet,  this  would 
be  given  by  a  gradient  of  15  feet  a  mile,  or  1  in  333  for  100  miles. 
Such  a  gradient  would  not  be  perceptible  to  the  eye,  and  would 
certainly  not  be  sufficient  to  cause  any  tension  likely  to  rupture  rocks 
or  disturb  strata. 

Such  movements  are  as  a  rule  extremely  slow.  In  volcanic  regions 
there  are  occasionally  shocks  which  raise  extensive  regions  a  few  feet 
at  a  blow,  and  partial  elevations  and  subsidences  which  throw  up  cones 
of  lava  and  cinders,  or  let  mountains  down  into  chasms,  in  a  single 
explosion.  The  most  noted  of  these  are  the  instances  of  Monte  Nuovo, 
near  Naples,  800  feet  high,  and  Jorullo,  in  Mexico,  thrown  up  in  one 
eruption,  and  the  disappearance  the  other  day  of  a  mountain  2,000  feet 
high  in  the  Straits  of  Sunda  during  an  earthquake.  The  largest  rise 
recorded  of  an  extensive  area  from  the  shock  of  an  earthquake,  is  that 
which  occured  in  South  America  in  1835,  when  a  range  of  coast  of  500 
miles  from  Copiapo  to  Chiloe  was  permanently  raised  five  or  six  feet 
by  a  single  shock,  as  was  shown  by  the  beds  of  dead  mussels  and  other 
shells  which  had  been  hoisted  up  in  some  places  as  much  as  ten  feet. 
It  is  probable  that  the  great  chain  of  the  Andes,  whose  highest  sum- 
mits reach  27,000  feet,  has  been  raised  in  a  great  measure  by  a 
succession  of  similar  shocks. 

But  for  the  most  part  these  movements,  whether  of  elevation  or 
depression,  go  on  so  slowly  and  quietly  that  they  escape  observation 


TIME.  27 

Scandinavia  is  apparently  now  rising  and  Greenland  sinking,  but  most 
countries  have  remained  appreciably  steady,  or  nearly  so,  during  the 
historical  period.  St.  Michael's  Mount,  in  Cornwall,  is  still  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a  spit,  dry  at  ebb  tide  and  covered  at  flood,  as  it 
was  more  than  2,000  years  ago  when  the  old  Britons  carted  their  tin 
across  to  Phoenician  traders.  Egypt,  during  a  period  of  7,000  years, 
has  preserved  the  same  level,  or  at  the  most  has  sunk  as  slowly  as  the 
Nile  mud  has  accumulated.  Parts  of  the  English  and  Scotch  coast  have 
risen  perhaps  twenty  feet  since  the  prehistoric  period,  when  canoes 
were  wrecked  under  what  are  now  the  streets  of  Glasgow,  and  whales 
were  stranded  in  the-  Carse  of  Stirling.  There  is  even  some  evidence 
that  the  latest  rise  may  have  occurred  since  the  Eoman  wall  was  built 
from  the  Forth  to  the  Clyde.  In  any  case,  however,  the  movements 
have  been  extremely  slow,  and  there  have  been  frequent  oscillations, 
and  long  pauses  when  the  level  of  land  and  sea  remained  stationary. 
The  evidence,  therefore,  from  the  great  changes  which  have  occurred 
during  each  geological  period,  points  to  the  same  conclusion  as  that 
drawn  from  the  thickness  of  formations,  such  as  the  coal  measures 
and  chalk,  which  must  have  been  accumulated  very  slowly,  viz.,  that 
geological  time  must  be  measured  by  a  scale  of  millions  of  years. 

Another  test  of  the  vast  duration  of  geological  time  is  afforded  by 
the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  animal  life  as  we  pass  from  one 
formation  to  another,  and  even  within  the  limits  of  the  same  formation. 
The  fauna,  or  form  of  existing  life  at  a  given  period,  changes  with 
extreme  slowness.  During  the  historical  period  there  has  been  no 
perceptible  change,  and  even  since  the  Pliocene  period,  which  cannot 
be  placed  at  a  less  distance  from  us  than  200,000  years,  and  probably 
at  much  more,  the  change  has  been  very  small.  In  the  limited  class  of 
large  land  animals  it  has  been  considerable;  but  if  we  take  the  far 
more  numerous  forms  of  shell-fish  and  other  marine  life,  the  old  species 
which  have  become  extinct  and  the  new  ones  which  have  appeared,  do 
not  exceed  five  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  This  is  the  more  remarkable  as. 
great  vicissitudes  of  climate  and  variations  of  sea-level  have  occurred 
during  the  interval.  The  whole  of  the  Glacial  period  has  come  and 
gone,  and  Britain  has  been  by  turns  an  archipelago  of  frozen  islands, 
and  part  of  a  continent  extending  over  what  is  now  the  German  Ocean, 
and  pushing  out  into  the  Atlantic  up  to  the  one  hundred  fathom  line. 

Reasoning  from  these  facts,  assuming  the  rate  of  change  in  the 
forms  of  life  to  have  been  the  same  formerly,  and  summing  up  the 
many  complete  changes  of  fauna  which  have  occurred  during  the 
separate  geological  formations,  Lyell  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  geology  requires  a  period  of  not  less  than  200  millions  of  years 
to  account  for  the  phenomena  which  it  discloses. 

Long  as  the  record  is  of  geological  time,  it  is  only  that  of  one 
short  chapter  in  the  volume  of  the  history  of  the  universe.  Geology 
only  begins  when  the  earth  had  cooled  down  into  a  state  resembling 
the  present;  when  winds  blew,  rains  fell,  rivers  and  seas  eroded  rocks 
and  formed  deposits,  and  when  the  conditions  were  such  that  life 
became  possible  by  the  remains  of  which  those  deposits  can  be 
identified. 

But  before  this  period  began,  which  may  be  called  that  of  the 
maturity  or  middle  age  of  our  planet,  a  much  vaster  time  must  be 
allowed  for  the  contraction  and  cooling  of  the  vaporous  ether  or 
cosmic  matter  of  which  it  is  formed,  into  the  state  in  which  the 


28        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

phenomena  of  geology  became  possible.  And  if  vast  in  the  case  of 
the  earth,  how  must  vaster  must  be  the  life  periods  of  the  larger 
planets,  such  as  Jupiter,  which  from  their  much  greater  size  cool  and 
contract  much  more  slowly,  and  are  not  yet  advanced  beyond  the 
stage  of  intense  youthful  heat  and  glowing  luminosity  which  was  left 
behind  by  onr  earth  a  great  many  tens  of  millions  of  years  ago!  And 
how  vastly  vaster  must  be  that  of  the  sun,  whose  mass  and  volume 
exceed  those  of  Jupiter  in  a  far  higher  ratio  than  Jupiter  surpasses 
the  earth! 

And  beyond  all  this  in  a  third  degree  of  vastness  come  the  life 
periods  of  those  stars  or  distant  suns,  which  we  know  to  be  in  some 
cases  as  much  as  three  hundred  times  larger  than  our  sun,  and  not 
nearly  so  far  advanced  as  it  in  the  process  of  emergence  from  the 
fiery  nebulous  into  the  solar  stage. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  vast  intervals  of  time  required  for  these 
changes,  a  few  facts  and  figures  may  be  given. 

One  of  the  latest  speculations  of  mathematical  science  is  that 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  is  becoming  slower,  or  in  other  words  the 
day  becoming  longer,  owing  to  the  retarding  action  of  the  tides,  which 
act  as  a  brake  on  a  revolving  wheel.  If  so,  mathematical  calculation 
shows  that  the  effect  of  the  reaction  on  the  moon  of  this  action  of 
the  moon  on  the  earth,  must  be  that  as  the  earth  rotates  more  slowly, 
the  moon  recedes  to  a  greater  distance.  And  vice  versci,  when  the 
earth  rotated  more  rapidly  the  moon  was  nearer  to  it,  until  at  length, 
when  the  process  is  carried  back  far  enough,  we  arrrve  at  a  time  when 
the  moon  was  at  the  earth's  surface  and  the  length  of  the  day  about 
three  hours.  In  this  state  of  things  the  moon  is  supposed  to  have 
been  thrown  off  from  the  earth,  either  by  one  great  convulsion,  or, 
more  probably,  by  small  masses  at  a  time  forming  a  ring  like  that  of 
Saturn,  which  ended  by  coalescing  into  a  single  satellite.  With 
the  moon,  which  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  tides,  so  much  nearer 
the  earth,  their  rise  and  fall  must  have  been  something  enormous,  and 
huge  tidal  waves  like  the  bore  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  but  perhaps  500 
or  1,000  feet  high,  must  have  swept  twice  during  each  revolution  of  the 
earth  on  its  axis,  i.e.)  twice  every  three  or  four  hours,  along  all  the 
narrower  seas  and  channels  and  over  all  except  the  mountainous  lands 
adjoining. 

Now  these  conclusions  may  be  true  or  not  as  regards  phases  of 
the  earth's  life  prior  to  the  Silurian  period,  from  which  downwards 
geology  shows  unmistakably  that  nothing  of  the  sort,  or  in  the  least 
degree  approaching  to  it,  has  occurred.  But  what  I  wish  to  point 
out  is  that  all  this  superstructure  of  theory  rests  on  a  basis  which 
really  does  admit  of  definite  demonstration  and  calculation. 

Halley  found  that  when  eclipses  of  the  sun,  recorded  in  ancient 
annals,  are  compared  with  recent  observations,  a  discrepancy  is  discov- 
ered in  the  rate  of  the  moon's  motion,  which  must  have  been  slightly 
slower. then  than  it  is  now.  Laplace  apparently  solved  the  difficulty  by 
showing  that  this  was  an  inevitable  result  of  the  law  of  gravity,  when 
,  the  varying  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  was  properly  taken  into 
account;  find  the  calculated  amount  of  the  variation  from  this  cause 
was  shown  to  be  exactly  what  was  required  to  reconcile  the  observa- 
tions. But  our  great  English  mathematician,  Adams,  having  recently 
.gone  over  Laplace's  calculations  anew,  discovered  that  some  factors  in 
the  problem  had  been  omitted,  which  reduced  Laplace's  acceleration  of 


TIME.  29' 

the  moon's  motion  by  about  one-liar1,  leaving  tlio  other  half  to  be 
explained  by  a  real  increase  in  the  length  of  the  sidereal  day,  or  time 
of  one  complete  revolution  of  the  earth  about  its  axis.  The  retarda- 
tion required  is  one  sufficient  to  account  for  the  total  accumulated  loss 
of  an  hour  and  a  quarter  in  2,000  years;  or  in  other  words,  the  length 
of  the  day  is  now  more  by  about  ^th  part  of  a  second  than  it  was 
2,000  years  ago. 

At  this  rate  it  would  require  168,000  years  to  make  a  difference  of 
1  second  in  the  length  of  the  day;  10,080,000  years  for  a  difference  of 
1  minute;  and  604,800,000  years  for  a  difference  of  1  hour.  The  rate 
would  not  be  uniform  for  the  past,  JLr  as  the  moon  got  nearer  it  would 
cause  higher  tides  and  more  retardation;  still,  the  abyss  of  time  seems 
almost  inconceivable  to  get  back  to  the  state  in  which  the  earth  could, 
have  rotated  in  three  hours  and  thrown  off  the  moon. 

It  is  right,  however,  to  state  that  all  mathematical  calculations  of 
time,  based  on  the  assumed  rate  at  which  cosmic  matter  cools  into  suns- 
and  planets,  and  these  into  solid  and  habitable  globes,  are  in  the  high- 
est degree  uncertain.  If  the  original  data  are  right,  mathematical 
calculation  inevitably  gives  right  conclusions.  But  if  the  data  are 
wrong,  or  what  is  the  same  thing,  partial  and  imperfect,  the  conclusions 
will,  with  equal  certainty,  be  wrong  also.  Now  in  this  case  we  certainly 
do  not  know  "  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the< 
truth "  respecting  these  processes.  Take  what  is  perhaps  the  most 
difficult  problem  presented  by  science — how  the  sun  keeps  up  so 
uniformly  the  enormous  amount  of  heat  which  it  is  constantly  radiat- 
ing into  space.  This  radiation  is  going  on  in  every  direction,  and  the 
solar  heat  received  by  the  earth  is  only  that  minute  portion  of  it 
which  is  intercepted  by  our  little  speck  of  a  planet.  All  the  planets 
together  receive  less  than  one  230,000,000th  part  of  the  total  heat 
radiated  away  by  the  sun  and  apparently  lost  in  space.  Knowing  the 
amount  of  heat  from  the  sun's  rays  received  at  the  earth's  surface  in  a, 
given  time,  we  can  calculate  the  total  amount  of  heat  radiated  from 
the  sun  in  that  time.  It  amounts  to  this,  that  the  sun  in.  each  second 
of  time  parts  with  as  much  heat  as  would  be  given  out  by  the  burning 
of  16,436  millions  of  millions  of  tons  of  the  best  anthracite  coal.  And 
radiation  certainly  at  this  rate,  if  not  a  higher  one,  has  been  going  on 
ever  since  the  commencement  of  the  geological  record,  wrhich  must 
certainly  be  reckoned  by  a  great  many  tens  of  millions  of  years. 

What  an  illustration  does  this  afford  of  that  apparent  "waste  of 
Nature"  which  made  Tennyson  "falter  where  he  firmly  trod"  when  he 
came  to  consider  "her  secret  meaning  in  her  deeds!" 

Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  vast  as  these  figures  are,  they  are 
all  the  result  of  natural  laws,  just  r.s  we  find  the  law  of  gravity 
prevailing  throughout  space  at  distances  expressed  by  figures  equally 
vast.  The  question  is,  what  laws?  The  only  one  we  know  of  at  present 
at  all  adequate  to  account  for  such  a  generation  of  heat,  is  the  trans- 
formation into  heat  of  the  enormous  amount  of  mechanical  force  or 
energy,  resulting  from  the  condensation  of  the  mass  of  nebulous 
matter  from  which  the  sun  was  formed,  into  a  mass  of  its  present 
dimensions.  This  is  no  doubt  a  true  cause  -  as  far  as  it  goes.  It  is 
true  that  as  the  mass  contracts,  heat  would  be,  so  to  speak,  squeezed 
out  of  it,  very  much  as  water  is  squeezed  out  of  a  wet  sponge  by 
compressing  it.  But  it  is  a  question  whether  it  is  the  sole  and 
sufficient  cause.  Mathematicians  have  calculated  that  even  if  we 


30        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

suppose  the  original  cosmic  matter  to  have  had  an  infinite  extension, 
its  condensation  into  the  present  sum  would  only  have  been  sufficient  to 
keep  up  the  actual  supply  of  solar  heat  for  about  15  millions  of  years. 
Of  this  a  large  portion  must  have  been  exhausted  before  the  earth  was 
formed  as  a  separate  planet,  and  had  cooled  down  into  a  habitabb 
globe.  But  even  if  we  took  the  whole  it  would  be  altogether  insuf- 
ficient. All  competent  geologists  are  agreed  in  requiring  at  least  100 
millions  of  years  to  account  for  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in 
the  earth's  surface  since  the  first  dawn  of  life  recorded  in  the  older 
rocks. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  reconcile  the  discrepancy. 
For  instance,  it  has  been  said  that  the  constantly  repeated  impact  of 
masses  of  meteoric  and  cometic  matter  falling  into  the  sun  must  have 
caused  the  destruction  of  a  vast  amount  of  mechanical  energy  which 
would  be  converted  into  heat.  This  is  true  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  conceive  of  the  sun  as  a  target  kept  at  a  perpetual  and 
uniform  white  heat  for  millions  of  years  by  a  rain  of  meteoric  bullets 
constantly  fired  upon  it.  More  plausibly  it  is  said  that  we  know 
nothing  of  the  interior  constitution  of  the  sun,  and  that  its  solid 
nucleus  may  be  vastly  more  compressed  than  is  inferred  from  the 
dimensions  of  its  visible  disc,  which  is  composed  of  glowing  flames  and 
vapors.  This  also  may  be  a  true  cause,  but,  after  making  every 
allowance,  we  must  fall  back  on  the  statement  that  the  continuance  for 
such  enormous  periods  of  such  an  enormous  waste  of  energy  as  is 
given  out  by  the  sun,  though  certainly  explainable  by  laws  of  Nature, 
depends  on  laws  not  yet  thoroughly  understood  and  explained. 

Even  in  the  case,  comparatively  small  and  near  to  us,  of  the  earth, 
the  condition  of  the  interior  and  the  rate  of  secular  cooling  afford  prob- 
lems which  as  yet  wait  for  solution.  The  result  of  a  number  of  careful 
experiments  in  mines  and  deep  sinkings  shows  that  the  temperature, 
as  we  descend  below  the  shallow  superficial  crust  which  is  affected  by 
the  seasons,  i.  6.,  by  the  solar  radiation,  increases  at  the  average  rate  of 
1°  Fahrenheit  for  every  60  feet  of  depth.  That  is  the  average  rate, 
though  it  varies  a  good  deal  in  different  localities.  Now,  at  this  rate 
we  should  soon  reach  a  depth  at  which  all  known  substances  would  be 
melted.  . 

But  astronomical  considerations,  derived  from  the  Precession  of 
the  Equinuxes,  favor  the  idea  that  the  earth  is  a  solid  and  not  a  fluid 
body,  and  require  us  in  any  case  to  assume  a  rigid  crust  of  not  less  than 
ninety  miles  in  thickness.  And  if  the  whole  earth  belo.w  a  thin  super- 
ficial crust  were  in  an  ordinary  state  of  fluidity  from  heat,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how  it  could  do  otherwise  than  boil,  that  is,  establishing  circulat- 
ing "currents  throughout  its  mass  with  disengagement  of  vapor,  in 
which  case  the  surface  crust  must  be  very  soon  broken  up  and  melted 
down,  just  as  the  superficial  crust  of  a  red-hot  stream  of  lava  is,  if  an 
infusion  of  fresh  lava  raises  the  stream  below  to  white  heat,  or  as  a  thin 
film  of  ice  would  be  if  boiling  water  were  poured  in  below  it. 

All  we  can  say  is,  that  the  laws  under  which  matter  behaves  under 
conditions  of  heat,  pressure,  chemical  action,  and  electricity  so  totally 
different  as  must  prevail  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  and  d  fortiori  in 
that  of  the  sun,  are  as  yet  very  partially  known  to  us.  In  the  mean- 
time the  safest  course  is  to  hold  by  those  conclusions  of  geology  which, 
as  far  as  they  go,  depend  on  laws  really  known  to  us.  For  instance, 
the  quantity  of  mud  carried  down  in  a  year  by  the  Ganges  or  Missis- 


TIME.  31 

sippi,  is  a  quantity  which  can  be  calculated  within  certain  approximate 
limits.  We  can  tell  with  certainty  how  much  the  deposit  of  this 
amount  of  mud  would  raise  an  area,  say  of  100  square  miles,  and  how 
long  it  would  take,  at  this  rate,  to  lower  the  area  of  India  drained  by 
the  Ganges,  a  sufficient  number  of  feet  to  give  matter  enough  to  fill  up 
the  Gulf  of  Bengal.  And  if  among  the  older  formations  we  find  one, 
like  the  Wealden  for  instance,  similar  in  character  to  that  now  forming 
by  the  Ganges,  we  can  approximate  from  its  thickness  to  the  time 
that  may  have  been  required  to  form  it. 

In  calculations  of  this  sort  there  is  no  theory,  they  are  based  on 
positive  facts,  limited  only  by  a  certain  possible  amount  of  error  either 
way.  In  short,  the  conclusions  of  geology,  at  any  rate  up  to  the  Silu- 
rian period  when  the  present  order  of  things  was  fairly  inaugurated,  are 
approximate  facts  and  not  theories,  while  the  astronomical  conclusions 
are  theories  based  on  data  so  uncertain,  that  while  in  some  cases  they 
give  results  incredibly  short,  like  that  of  15  millions  of  years  for  the 
whole  past  process  of  the  formation  of  the  solar  system,  in  others  they 
give  results  almost  incredibly  long,  as  in  that  which  supposes  the  moon 
to  have  been  thrown  off  when  the  earth  was  rotating  in  three  hours, 
while  the  utmost  actual  retardation  claimed  from  observation  would 
require  600  millions  of  years  to  make  it  rotate  in  twenty-three  hours 
instead  of  twenty-four. 

To  one  who  looks  at  these  discussions  between  geologists  and 
astronomers  not  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  specialist  in  either  science, 
but  from  that  of  a  dispassionate  spectator,  the  safest  course,  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge,  seems  to  be  to  assume  that  geology 
really  proves  the  duration  of  the  present  order  of  things  to  have  been 
somewhere  over  100  millions  of  years,  and  that  astronomy  gives  an 
enormous  though  unknown  time  beyond  in  the  past,  and  to  come  in  the 
future,  for  the  birth,  growth,  maturity,  decline,  and  death  of  the  solar 
system  of  which  our  earth  is  a  small  planet  now  passing  through  the 
habitab  e  phase. 

So  far,  however,  as  the  immediate  object  of  this  work  is  concerned, 
TIZ.,  the  bearings  of  modern  scientific  discovery  on  modern  thought,  it 
is  not  very  material  whether  the  shortest  or  longest  possible  standards 
of  time  are  adopted.  The  conclusions  as  to  man's  position  in  the  uni- 
verse and  the  historical  truth  or  falsehood  of  old  beliefs,  are  the  same 
whether  man  has  existed  in  a  state  of  constant  though  slow  progression 
for  the  last  50,000  years  of  a  period  of  15  millions,  or  for  the  last  500,- 
000  years  of  a  period  of  150  millions.  It  is  a  matter  of  the  deepest 
scientific  interest  to  arrive  at  the  truth,  both  as  to  the  age  of  the  solar 
system,  the  age  of  the  earth  as  a  body  capable  of  supporting  life,  the 
successive  orders  and  dates  at  which  life  actually  appeared,  and  the 
manner  and  date  of  the  appearence  of  the  most  highly  organized  form 
of  life  endowed  with  new  capacities  for  developing  reason  and  conscience 
in  the  form  af  Man.  Those  who  wish  to  prove  themselves  worthy  of 
their  great  good  luck  in  having  been  born  in  a  civilized  country  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  not  in  Palaeolithic  periods,  will  do  well  to  show 
that  curiosity,  or  appetite  for  knowledge,  which  mainly  distinguishes 
the  clever  from  the  stupid  and  the  civilized  from  the  savage  man,  by 
studying  the  works  of  such  writers  as  Lyell,  Huxley,  Tyndall,  and 
Proctor,  where  they  will  find  the  questions  here  only  briefly  stated, 
developed  at  fuller  length  with  the  most  accurate  science  and  in  the 
clearest  and  most  attractive  style.  But  for  the  moral,  philosophical, 


32        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

and  religious  bearings  of  these  discoveries  on  the  current  of  modern 
thought,  there  is  such  a  wide  margin  that  it  becomes  almost  immaterial 
whether  the  shortest  possible  or  longest  possible  periods  should  be 
ultimately  established. 


CHAPTER  III. 
MATTER. 

WHAT  is  the  material  universe  composed  of?  Ether,  Matter,  and 
Energy.  Ether  is  not  actually  known  to  us  by  any  test  of  which 
the  senses  can  take  cognizance,  but  is  a  sort  of  mathematical  substance 
which  we  are  compelled  to  assume  in  order  to  account  for  the  phenomena 
of  light  and  heat.  Light,  as  we  have  seen,  radiates  in  all  directions  from 
a  luminous  centre,  travelling  at  the  rate  of  184,000  miles  per  second. 
Now  what  is  light?  It  is  a  sensation  produced  on  the  brain  by  some- 
thing which  has  been  concentrated  by  the  lens  of  the  eye  on  the  retina, 
and  then  transmitted  along  the  optic  nerve  to  the  brain,  where  it  sets 
certain  molecules  vibrating.  What  is  the  something  which  produces 
this  effect?  Is  it  a  succession  of  minute  particles,  shot  like  rifle-bullets 
from  the  luminous  body  and  impinging  on  the  retina  as  on  a  target? 
Or  is  it  a  succession  of  tiny  waves  breaking  on  the  retina  as  the  waves 
of  the  sea  break  on  the  shore?  Analogy  suggests  the  latter,  for  in  the 
case  of  the  sister  sense,  Sound,  we  know  as  a  fact  that  the  sensation  is 
produced  on  the  brain  by  waves  of  air  concentrated  by  the  ear,  and. 
striking  on  the  auditory  nerve.  But  we  have  a  more  conclusive  proof. 
If  one  of  a  series  of  particles  shot  out  like  bullets  overtakes  another, 
the  force  of  impact  of  the  two  is  increased;  but  if  one  wave  overtakes 
another  when  the  crest  of  the  pursuing  wave  just  coincides  with  the 
hollow  of  the  wave  before  it  the  effect  is  neutralized,  and  if  the  two  are 
of  equal  size  it  will  be  exactly  neutralized  and  both  waves  will  be 
effaced.  In  other  words,  two  lights  will  make  darkness.  This,  there- 
fore, affords  an  infallible  test.  If  two  lights  can  make  darkness,  light 
is  propagated,  like  sound,  by  waves.  Now  two  lights  do  constantly 
make  darkness,  as  is  proved,  every  day  by  numerous  experiments. 
Therefore  light  is  caused  by  waves. 

But  to  have  waves  there  must  be  a  medium  through  which  the 
waves  are  propagated.  Without  water  you  could  not  have  ocean  waves; 
without  air  you  could  not  have  sound-waves.  Waves  are  in  fact 
nothing  but  the  successive  forms  assumed  by  a  set  of  particles  which, 
when  forced  from  a  position  of  rest,  tend  to  return  to  that  position,  and 
oscillate  about  it.  Place  a  cork  on  the  surface  of  a  still  pond,  and  then 
throw  in  a  stone;  what  follows?  Waves  are  propagated,  wjiich  seem  to 
travel  outwards  in  circles,  but  if  you  watch  the  cork,  you  will  sea  that  it 
does  not  really  travel  outwards,  but  simply  rises  and  falls  in  the  same 
place.  This  is  equally  true  of  waves  of  sound  and  waves  of  light.  But 
the  velocity  with  which  the  waves  travel  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
medium.  In  a  dense  medium  of  imperfect  elasticity  they  travel  slowly, 
in  a  rare  and  elastic  medium  quickly.  Now  the  velocity  of  a  sound- 
wave in  air  is  about  1,100  feet  a  second,  that  of  the  light-wave  about 
184,000  miles  a  second,  or  about  one  million  times  greater.  It  is 
proved  by  mathematical  calculation  that,  if  the  density  of  two  media 


MATTER. 


33 


are  the  same,  their  elasticities  are  in  proportion  to  the  squares  of  the 
velocities  with  which  a  wave  travels.  The  elasticity  of  ether,  there- 
fore, would  be  a  million  million  times  greater  than  that  of  air,  which, 
as  we  know,  is  measured  by  its  power  of  resisting  a  pressure  of  about 
15  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch.  But  the  ether  must  in  fact  be  almost  infi- 
nitely rare,  as  well  as  almost  infinitely  elastic,  for  it  causes  no  perceptible 
retardation  in  the  "motions  of  the  earth  and  planets.  It  must  be  almost 
infinitely  rare  also,  because  it  permeates  freely  the  interior  of  substances 
like  glass  and  crystals,  through  which  light-waves  pass,  showing  that 
the  atoms  or  ultimate  particles  of  which  these  substances  are  composed, 
minute  as  they  are,  must  be  floating  in  ether  like  buoys  floating  on  water 
or  balloons  in  the  air. 

The  dimensions  of  the  light- waves  which  travel  through  this  ether  at 
the  rate  of  184,000  miles  a  second,  can  be  accurately  measured  by 
strict  mathematical  calculations,  depending  mainly  on  the  phenomena 
of  interferences,  i.e.,  of  the  intervals  required  between  successive  waves 
for  the  crest  of  one  to  overtake  the  depression  of  another  and  thus 
make  two  lights  produce  darkness. 

These   calculations  are  much  too  intricate  to  admit  of   popular 
explanation,  but  they  are  as  certain  as  those  of  the  Nautical  Almanac, 
based  on  the  law  of  gravity,    which  enable  ships  to  find   their   way 
across  the  pathless  ocean,  and  they  give  the  following  results: 
DIMENSIONS  or  LIGHT- WAVES. 


COLOKS. 

NUMBER  OF  WA.VZS 
IN  ONE  INCH. 

NUMBBK  or  OSCILLATIONS 
IN  ONE  SECOND. 

Bed 

39,000 

477,000,000,000,000 

Orange 

42,000 

506,000,000,000,000 

Yellow 

44,000 

535,000,000,000,000 

Green 

47,000 

575,000,000,000,000 

Blue 

51,000 

622,000,000,000,000 

Indigo 

54,000 

658,000,000,000,000 

Violet 

57,000 

669,000,000,000,000 

These  are  the  colors  whose  vibrations  affect  the  brain  through 
the  eye  with  the  sensation  of  light,  and  which  cause  the  sensation  of 
white  light  when  their  different  vibrations  reach  the  eye  simultaneously. 
But  there  are  waves  and  vibrations  on  each  side  of  these  limits,  which 
produce  different  effects,  the  longer  waves  with  slower  oscillations 
beyond  the  red,  though  no  longer  causing  light  causing  heat,  while  the 
shorter  and  quicker  waves  beyond  the  violet  cause  chemical  action,  and 
are  the  most  active  agents  in  photography. 

We  must  refer  our  readers  to  works  treating  specially  of  light  for 
further  details,  and  for  an  account  of  the  vast  variety  of  beautiful  and 
interesting  experiments  with  polarized'light,  colored  rings,  and  other- 
wise, to  which  the  theory  of  waves  propagated  through  ether  affords 
the  key.  For  the  present  purpose  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  modern 
science  compels  us  to  assume,  as  the  substratum  of  the  material 
universe,  such  an  ether  extending  everywhere,  from  the  faintest  star 
seen  at  a  distance  which  requires  thousands  of  years  for  its  rays,  travel- 
ling at  the  rate  of  184,000  miles  a  second,  to  reach  the  earth,  down  to 
the  infinitesimally  small  interspace  between  the  atoms  of  the  minutest 
matter.  And  throughout  the  whole  of  this  enormous  range  lawpre- 


34         MODERX  SCIENCE  AXD   MODERX  THOUGHT. 

vails,  ether  vibrates  and  has  always  vibrated  in  the  same  definite  man- 
ner, just  as  air  vibrates  by  definite  laws  when  the  strings  of  a  piano  are 
struck  by  the  hammers. 

I  pass  now  to  the  consideration  of  matter. 

What  is  matter?  In  the  most  general  sense  it  is  that  which  has 
weight,  or  is  subject  to  the  law  of  gravity.  The  next  analysis  shows 
that  it  is  something  which  can  exist  in  the  three  forms  of  solid,  liquid, 
or  gas,  according  to  the  amount  of  heat.  Diminish  heat,  and  the  parti- 
cles approach  closer  and  are  linked  together  by  mutual  attraction,  so  as 
not  to  be  readily  parted;  this  is  a  solid.  Increase  the  heat  up  to  a  cer- 
tain point,  and  the  particles  recede  until  their  mutual  attractions-in  the 
interior  of  the  mass  neutralize  one  another,  so  that  the  particles  can 
move  freely,  though  still  held  together  as  a  mass  by  the  sum  of  all  these 
attractions  acting  as  if  concentrated  at  the  centre  of  gravity;  this  is  the 
liquid  state.  Increase  the  heat  still  more,  and  the  particles  separate 
until  they  get  beyond  the  sphere  of  their  mutual  attraction  and  tend  to 
dart  off  into  space,  unless  confined  by  some  surface  on  which  they  exert 
pressure;  this  is  a  gas. 

The  most  familiar  instance  of  this  is  afforded  by  water,  which,  as 
we  all  know,  exists  in  the  three  forms  of  ice,  w^ater,  and  vapor  or  steam, 
according  to  the  dose  of  heat  which  has  been  incorporated  with  it 

Pursuing  our  inquiry  further,  the  next  great  fact  in  regard  to  mat- 
ter is  that  it  is  not  all  uniform.  While  most  of  the  common  forms  with 
which  we  are  conversant  are  made  up  of  mixed  materials,  which  can  be 
taken  to  pieces  and  shown  separately,  there  are,  as  at  present  ascer- 
tained, some  seventy-one  substances  which  defy  chemical  analysis  to 
decompose  them,  and  must  therefore  be  taken  as  elementary  substances. 
A  great  majority  of  these  consist  of  substances  existing  in  minute  quan- 
tities, and  hardly  known  outside  the  laboratories  of  chemists. 

The  world  of  matter,  as  known  to  the  senses,  is  mainly  composed 
of  combinations,  more  or  less  complex,  of  a  few  elements.  Thus,  water 
is  a  compound  of  two  simple  gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen;  air,  of  oxy- 
gen and  nitrogen;  the  solid  framework  of  the  earth,  mainly  of  combina- 
tions of  oxygen  with  carbon,  calcium,  aluminum,  silicon,  and  a  few  other 
bases;  salt,  of  chlorine  and  sodium;  the  vegetable  world  directly  and  the 
animal  world  indirectly,  mainly  of  complex  combinations  of  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  nitrogen  with  carbon,  and  with  smaller  quantities  of 
silicon,  sulphur,  potassium,  sodium,  and  phosphorus.  The  ordinary 
metals,  such  as  iron,  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead,  mercury,  zinc,  nearly 
complete  the  list  of  what  may  be  called  ordinary  elements. 

Now  let  us  push  our  analysis  a  step  further,  How  is  matter  made 
up  of  these  elements0?  Up  to  and  beyond  the  furthest  point  visible  by 
aid  of  the  microscope,  matter  is  divisible.  We  can  break  a  crystal  into 
fragments,  or  divide  a  drop  into  drops,  until  they  cease  to  be  visible, 
though  still  retaining  all  the  properties  of  the  original  substance.  Can 
we  carry  on  this  process  indefinitely,  and  is  matter  composed  of  some- 
thing that  can  be  divided  and  subdivided  into  fractional  parts  ad  injini- 
tumf  The  answer  isj  No,  it  consists  of  ultimate  but  still  definite  par- 
ticles which  cannot  be  further  subdivided.  How  is  this  known? 
Because  we  find  by  experience  that  substances  will  only  combine  in  cer- 
tain definite  proportions  either  of  weight  or  measure.  For  instance, 
in  forming  water  exactly  eight  grains  by  weight  of  oxygen  combine 
with  exactly  one  grain  of  hydrogen,  and  if  there  is  any  excess  or  frac- 
tional part  of  either  gas,  it  remains  over  in  its  original  f  orm  uncombined. 


MATTER.  35 

In  like  manner,  matter  in  the  form  of  gas  always  combines  with  other 
matter  in  the  same  form  by  volumes  which  bear  a  definite  and  very 
simple  proportion  to  each  other,  and  the  compound  formed  bears  a 
definite  and  very  simple  ratio  to  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  the  combin- 
ing gases.  Thus  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  combine  with  one  of  oxygen 
to  form  two  volumes  of  water  in  the  state  of  vapor. 

From  these  facts  certain  inferences  can  be  drawn.  In  the  first 
place  it  is  clear  that  matter  really  does  consist  of  minute  particles, 
which  do  not  touch  and  form  a  continuous  solid  but  are  separated  by 
intervals  which  increase  with  increase  of  temperature.  This  is  evident 
from  -the  fact  that  we  can  pour  a  second  or  third  gas  into  a  space 
already  occupied  by  a  first  one.  Each  gas  occupies  the  enclosed  space 
just  as  if  there  were  no  other  gas  present,  and  exerts  its  own  proper 
pressure  on  the  containing  vessel,  so  that  the  total  pressure  on  it  is 
exactly  the  sum  of  the  partial  pressures.  It  is  easy  to  see  what  this 
means.  If  a  second  regiment  can  be  marched  into  a  limited  space  of 
ground  on  which  a  first  regiment  is  already  drawn  up,  it  is  evident 
that  the  first  regiment  must  be  drawn  up  in  loose  order,  i.  e  ,  the 
soldier-units  of  which  it  is  composed  must  stand  so  far  apart  that 
other  soldier-units  can  find  room  between  them  without  disturbing  the 
formation.  But  the  effect  will  be  that  the  fire  from  the  front  will  be 
increased,  as  for  instance  if  a  soldier  of  the  second  regiment,  armed 
with  a  six-shooter  repeating  rifle,  takes  his  stand  between  two  soldiers 
of  the  first  regiment  armed  with  single-barrelled  rifles,  the  effective 
iire  will  be  increased  in  the  ratio  of  8  to  2.  And  this  is  precisely  what 
is  meant  by  the  statement  that  the  pressure  of  two  gases  in  the  same 
space  is  the  sum  of  the  separate  pressures  of  each.  It  is  clearly 
established  that  the  pressure  of  a  gas  on  a  containing  surface  is  caused 
by  the  bombarding  to  which  it  is  subjected  from  the  impacts  of  an 
almost  infinite  number  of  these  almost  infinitely  small  atoms,  which, 
when  let  loose  from  the  mutual  attractions  which  hold  them  together 
in  the  solid  and  fluid  state,  dart  about  in  all  directions,  colliding  with 
one  another  and  rebounding,  like  a  set  of  little  billiard-balls  gone  mad, 
and  producing  a  certain  average  resultant  of  momentum  outwards 
which  is  called  pressure. 

Another  simile  may  help  us  to  conceive  how  the  indivisibility  of 
atoms  is  inferred  from  the  fact  that  they  only  combine  in  definite  pro- 
portions. Suppose  a  number  of  gentlemen  and  ladies  promenading 
promiscuously  in  a  room.  The  band  strikes  up  a  waltz,  and  they  at 
once  proceed  to  group  themselves  in  couples  rotating  with  rhythmical 
motion  in  definite  orbits.  Clearly,  if  there  are  more  ladies  than  gen- 
tlemen, some  of  them  will  be  left  without  partners.  So,  if  instead  of 
a  waltz  it  were  a  threesome  reel,  in  which  each  gentleman  led  out  two 
ladies,  there  must  be  ex-ictly  twice  as  many  ladies  as  gentlemen  for  all 
to  join  in  the  dance.  But  if  a  gentleman  could  be  cut  up  into  frac- 
tional parts,  and  each  fraction  developed  into  a  dancing  gentleman,  as 
primitive  cells  split  up  and  produce  fresh  cells,  it  would  not  matter 
how  many  ladies  there  were,  as  each  could  be  provided  with  a  partner. 
Now  this  is  strictly  analogous  to  what  occurs  in  chemical  combination. 
Water  is  formed  by  each  gentleman  atom  of  oxygen  taking  out  a  lady 
atom  of  hydrogen  in  each  hand,  and  the  sets  thus  formed  commence 
to  dance  threesome  reels  in  definite  time  and  measure,  any  surplus 
oxygen  or  hydrogen  .atoms  beingjlef  t  out  in  the  cold.  Wonderful  as 
it  may  appear,  science  enables  us  not  only  to  say  of  these  inconceivably 


36         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

minute  atoms  that  they  have  a  real  existence,  but  to  count  and  weigh: 
them.  This  fact  has  been  accomplished  by  mathematical  calculations 
based  on  laws  which  have  been  ascertained  by  a  long  series  of  experi- 
ments on  the  constitution  of  gases. 

It  is  found  that  all  substances,  when  in  the  form  of  gas,  conform 
to  three  laws: 

1.  Their  volume  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  pressure  to  which 
they  are  subjected. 

2.  Their  volume  is  directly  proportional  to  the  temperature. 

3.  At  the  same  pressure  and  temperature  all  gases  have  the   same 
number  of  molecules  in  the  same  volume. 

From  the  last  law  it  is  obvious  that  if  equal  volumes  of  two  gases 
are  of  different  weight,  the  cause  must  be  that  the  molecules  of  the 
one  are  heavier  than  those  of  the  other.  This  enables  us  to  express 
the  weight  of  the  molecule  of  any  other  gas  in  some  multiple  of  the 
•unit  afforded  by  the  weight  of  the  molecule  of  the  lightest  gas,  which 
is  hydrogen.  Thus,  the  density  of  watery  vapor  being  nine  times  that 
of  hydrogen,  we  infer  that  the  molecule  of  water  weighs  nine  times  as 
much  as  the  molecule  of  hydrogen,  and  that  of  oxygen  being  eight 
times  greater,  we  infer  that  the  oxygen  molecule  is  eight  times  heavier 
than  that  of  hydrogen. 

These  weights  are  checked  by  the  other  law  which  has  been  stated, 
that  chemical  combination  between  different  substances  always  takes- 
place  in  certain  definite  proportions.  Thus,  whenever  in  a  chemical 
process  the  original  substances  or  the  product  are  or  might  exist 
in  the  state  of  gas,  it  is  always  found  that  the  definite  proportions 
observed  in  the  chemical  process  are  either  the  proportions  of  the 
densities  of  the  respective  gases  or  some  simple  multiple  of  these 
proportions.  Thus,  the  weight  of  hydrogen  being  2,  which  combines 
with  a  weight  of  oxygen  equal  to  16  to  form  a  weight  of  watery  vapor 
equal  to  18,  the  density  of  the  latter  is  to  that  of  hydrogen  as  9  to  1, 
i.e.,  as  18  to  2. 

But  to  get  to  tae  bottom  of  the  matter  we  must  go  a  step  further, 
and  as  we  have  decomposed  substances  into  molecules,  we  must  take 
the  molecules  themselves  to  pieces  and  see  what  they  are  made  of. 
The  molecule  is  the  ultimate  particle  into  which  any  substance  can  be 
divided  retaining  its  own  peculiar  qualities.  A  molecule  of  water  is 
as  truly  water  as  a  drop  or  a  tumblerful.  But  when  chemical  decom- 
position takes  place,  instead  of  the  molecule  of  water  we  have  molecules 
of  two  entirely  different  substances,  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  Nothing 
can  well  be  more  unlike  than  the  product  water  and  the  component 
parts  of  which  it  is  made  up.  Water  is  a  fluid,  oxygen  a  gas;  water 
extinguishes  fire,  oxygen  creates  it.  Wafer  is  a  harmless  drink,  oxy- 
gen the  base  of  the  most  corrosive  acids.  It  is  evident  that  the  water- 
molecule  is  a  composite,  and  that  its  qualities  depend,  not  on  the 
essential  qualities  of  the  atoms  which  have  combined  to  make  it,  but 
on  the  manner  of  the  combination,  and  the  new  modes  of  action  into 
which  these  atoms  have  been  forced.  In  his  native  war-paint  oxygen 
is  a  furious  savage;  with  a  hydrogen  atom  in  each  hand  he  is  a  polished 
gentleman. 

Our  theory,  therefore,  leads  beyond  molecules  to  atoms,  and  we 
have  to  consider  these  particles  of  a  still  smaller  order  than  molecules, 
as  the  ultimate  indivisible  units  of  matter  of  which  we  have  been  in 
search.  And  even  these  we  must  conceive  of  as  corks,  as  it  were,  float- 


MATTER.  37 

ing  in  an  ocean  of  ether,  causing  waves  in  it  by  their  own  proper 
movements,  and  agitated  by  all  the  successive  waves  which  vibrate 
through  this  ether-ocean  in  the  form  of  light  and  heat. 

Working  on  these  data,  a  variety  of  refined  mathematical  calcula- 
tions made  by  Clausius,  Clark  Maxwell,  Sir  W.  Thomson,  and  other 
eminent  mathematicians,  have  given  us  approximate  figures  for  the 
actual  size,  weight,  and  velocities  of  atoms  and  molecules.  The  results 
•are  truly  marvellous.  A  millimetre  is  the  one  thousandth  part  of  a 
metre,  or  roughly  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch.  The  magnitudes  with 
which  we  have  to  deal  are  all  of  an  order  where  the  standard  of 
measurement  is  expressed  by  the  millionth  part  of  a  millimetre.  The 
volume  of  a  molecule  of  air  is  only  a  small  fraction  of  that  of  a  cube 
whose  side  would  be  the  millionth  of  a  millimetre.  A  cubic  centimetre, 
or  say  a  cube  whose  side  is  between  one- third  and  one-half  of  an  inch, 
contains  21,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  molecules.  The  number  of 
impacts  received  by  each  molecule  of  air  during  one  second  will  be 
4,700  millions.  The  distance  traversed  between  each  impact  averages 
95  millionths  of  a  millimetre. 

It  may  assist  in  forming  some  conception  of  these  almost  infinitely 
small  magnitudes,  to  quote  an  illustration  given  by  Sir  W.  Thomson  as 
the  result  of  mathematical  calculation.  Suppose  a  drop  of  water  were 
magnified  so  as  to  appear  of  the  size  of  the  earth  or  with  a  diameter  of 
8,000  miles,  the  atoms  of  which  it  is  composed,  magnified  on  the  same 
iscale,  would  appear  of  a  size  intermediate  between  that  of  a  rifle-bullet 
.and  of  a  cricket-ball. 

These  figures  show  that  space  and  magnitude  extend  beyond  the 
standards  of  ordinary  human  sense,  such  as  miles,  feet,  and  inches,  as 
far  downwards  into  the  region  of  the  infinitely  small  as  they  do 
upwards  into  that  of  the  infinitely  great. 

And  throughout  the  whole  of  this  enormous  range  law  prevails. 
The  same  law  of  gravity  gives  weight  to  molecuks  and  atoms,  makes 
an  apple  fall  to  the  ground,  and  causes  double  stars  to  revolve  round 
their  centre  of  gravity  in  elliptic  orbits.  The  law  of  polarity  which 
converts  iron-filings  into  small  magnets  under  the  influence  of  a 
permanent  magnet  or  electric  current,  animates  the  smallest  atom. 
Atoms  arrange  themselves  into  molecules,  and  molecules  into  crystals, 
very  much  as  magnetized  iron-filings  arrange  themselves  into  regular 
•curves.  And  the  great  law  seems  to  prevail  universally  throughout 
the  material,  as  it  does  also  throughout  the  moral  world,  that  you  can- 
not have  a  North  without  a  South  Pole,  a  positive  without  a  negative, 
a  right  without  a  wrong;  and  that  error  consists  mainly  in  what  the 
poet  calls  "the  falsehood  of  extremes" — that  is,  in  allowing  the  attrac- 
tion of  one  pole,  or  of  one  opinion,  so  to  absorb  us  as  to  take  no 
account  of  its  opposite. 

The  universal  prevalence  of  law  has  received  wonderful  confirma- 
tion of  late  years  from  the  discovery  made  by  the  spectroscope  that  the 
«un,  the  planets,  and  the  remotest  stars  are  all  composed  of  matter 
identical  with  that  into  which  chemical  analysis  has  resolved  the  constit- 
uent matter  of  the  earth.  This  has  been  proved  in  the  following  way: 

If  a  beam  of  light  is  admitted  into  a  darkened  room  through  a 
•small  hole  or  narrow  slit,  and  a  triangular  piece  of  glass,  called  a  prism, 
is  interposed  in  its  path,  the  image  thrown  on  a  screen  is  a  rainbow- 
tinted  streak,  intersected  by  numerous  fine  dark  lines,  which  is  called 
a  spectrum.  If,  instead  of  solar  light,  light  from  other  luminous  sources 


38         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

is  similarly  treated,  it  is  found  that  all  elementary  substances  have 
their  peculiar  spectra.  Light  from  solid  or  'liquid  substances  gives  a 
continuous  spectrum,  light  from  gases  or  glowing  vapors  gives  a  spec- 
trum of  bright  lines  separated  from  each  other,  but  always  in  definite 
positions  according  to  the  nature  of  the  substance.  The  next  great  step 
in  the  discovery  was  that  these  bright  lines  become  dark  lines  when  a 
light  of  greater  intensity,  coming  from  a  solid  nucleus,  is  transmitted 
through  an  atmosphere  of  such  gases  or  vapors.  We  can  thus  photo- 
graph the  spectrum  of  glowing  hydrogen,  sodium,  iron,  or  other  sub- 
stances, and  placing  it  below  a  photograph  of  a  solar  or  stellar  spec- 
trum, see  if  any  of  the  dark  lines  of  the  latter  correspond  with  the 
bright  lines  of  the  former.  If  they  do  w7e  may  be  certain  that  these 
substances  actually  exist  in  the  sun  or  star.  It  is,  in  fact,  just  the  same 
thing  as  if  we  had  been  able  to  bring  down  a  jar  full  of  the  solar  or 
stellar  matter  and  analyze  it  in  our  laboratories. 

It  is  difficult  to  convey  any  adequate  description  of  these  grand 
discoveries  made  by  the  new  science  of  Spectroscopy  without  referring 
to  special  works  on  the  subject;  but  it  may  be  possible  to  give  som& 
general  idea  of  the  principles  on  which  they  are  based. 

Light  consists  of  waves  propagated  through  ether.  These  wraves 
are  started  by  the  vibrations  of  the  ultimate  particles  of  matter,  which, 
whether  in  the  simplest  form  of  atoms,  in  the  more  complex  form  of 
molecules,  or  in  the  still  more  complex  form  of  compound  molecules, 
have  their  own  peculiar  and  distinct  vibrations.  These  vibrations  are 
increased,  diminished,  or  otherwise  modified  by  vibrations  of  heat  and 
by  the  collisions  which  occur  between  the  particles  from  their  own 
proper  motions.  If  we  take  the  simplest  case,  that  of  matter  in  the 
form  of  a  gas  or  vapor  composed  of  single  atoms,  at  a  temperature  just 
sufficient  to  become  luminous  and  at  a  pressure  small  enough  to  keep 
the  atoms  widely  apart,  the  vibrations  are  all  of  one  sort,  viz.,  that 
peculiar  to  the  elementary  substance  to  which  they  belong,  and  one  set 
of  waves  only  is  propagated  by  them  through  the  ether.  The  spec- 
trum, therefore,  of  such  a  gas  is  a  single  line  of  light,  in  the  definite 
position  which  is  due  to  its  refrangibility,  i.e.,  to  the  velocity  of  the 
particular  wave  of  light  which  the  particular  vibration  of  those  particu- 
lar atoms  is  able  to  propagate. 

When  pressure  is  increased  so  that  the  particles  are  brought  closer 
together,  their  vibrations  made  more  energetic  and  their  collisions 
more  frequent,  more  waves,  and  waves  of  different  qualities  are  started, 
and  more  lines  appear  in  the  spectrum  and  the  lines  widen  out,  until  at 
length  when  the  gas  becomes  very  dense,  some  of  the  lines  overlap  and 
an  approach  is  made  towards  a  continuous  spectrum.  Finally, 
when  the  particles  are  brought  so  near  together  that  the  substance 
assumes  a  fluid  or  solid  state,  the  number  of  wave-producing  vibrations 
becomes  so  great  that  a  complete  system  of  different  li<>ht-waves  is 
propagated,  and  the  lines  of  the  spectrum  are  multiplied  until  they 
coalesce  and  form  a  continuous  band  of  rainbow-tinted  light.  If  the 
particles  of  the  gas,  instead  of  being  single  atoms,  are  more  complex, 
as  molecules  or  compound  molecules,  the  vibrations  are  more  complex 
and  the  different  resulting  light- waves  more  numerous,  so  that  the  lines 
in  the  spectrum  are  more  numerous,  and  in  some  cases  they  coalesce 
so  as  to  form  shaded  bands,  or  what  are  called  fluted  lines,  instead  of 
simple  lines. 

Moreover,  whatever   light-waves  are  originated  by  the  vibrations. 


MA  TTER.  39 

of  the  particles  of  a  gas  are  absorbed  into  those  vibrations  and  extin- 
guished, if  they  originate  from  the  vibrations  of  some  more  energetic 
particles  of  another  substance  outside  of  it,  whose  light-waves,  travel- 
ling along  the  ether,  pass  through  the  gas,  and  are  thus  shown  ?*s  dark 
lines  in  the  spectrum  of  the  other  source  of  light. 

We  can  now  understand  how  the  assertion  is  justified  that  we  can 
analyze  the  composition  of  the  sun  and  stars  as  certainly  as  if  we  had  a 
jar  full  of  their  substance  to  analyze  in  our  laboratory.  The  first  glance 
at  a  spectrum  tells  us  whether  the  luminous  source  is  solid,  fluid,  or 
gaseous.  If  its  spectrum  is  continuous  it  is  solid  or  fluid;  we  know  this 
for  certain,  but  can  tell  nothing  more.  But  if  it  consists  of  bright  lines, 
we  know  that  it  comes  direct  from  matter  in  the  form  of  luminous  gas, 
and  knowing  from  experiments  in  the  laboratory  the  exact  colors  and 
situations  of  the  lines  formed  by  the  different  elements  of  which  earthly 
matter  is  composed,  we  can  see  whether  the  lines  in  the  spectra  of 
heavenly  matter  do  or  do  not  correspond  with  any  of  them.  .  If  bright 
lines  correspond  we  are  sure  that  the  substances  correspond,  both  as  to 
their  elementary  atoms  and  their  condition  as  glowing  gas.  If  dark 
lines  in  the  spectrum  of  the  heavenly  body  correspond  with  bright  lines 
in  that  of  a  known  earthly  substance,  we  are  certain  that  the  substances 
are  the  same  and  in  the  same  state  of  gas,  but  that  the  solar  or  stellar 
spectrum  proceeds  from  an  intensely  heated  interior  solid  or  fluid 
nucleus,  whose  waves  have  passed  through  an  outer  envelope  or  atmos- 
phere of  this  gas. 

Applying  these  principles,  although  the  science  is  still  in  its  infancy 
and  many  interesting  discoveries  remain  to  be  made,  this  grand  discov- 
ery has  become  an  axiomatic  fact — Matter  is  alike  everywhere.  The 
light  of  stars  up  to  the  extreme  boundary  of  the  visible  universe,  is  com- 
posed mainly  of  glowing  hydrogen,  the  same  identical  hydrogen  as  we 
get  by  decomposing  water  by  a  voltaic  battery. 

Of  the  71  elementary  substances  of  earthly  matter  enumerated  by 
chemists,  9  may  be  considered  as  doubtful  or  existing  only  in  exces- 
sively minute  quantities.  Of  the  remaining  62,  22  are  known  certainly 
to  exist  in  the  sun's  atmosphere,  10  more  can  probably  be  traced  there, 
and  there  are  only  6  as  to  which,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowled'ge, 
there  is  negative  evidence  that  they  are  not  present.  The  elements 
whose  presence  is  proved  comprise  many  of  those  which  are  most  com- 
mon in  the  composition  of  the  earth,  as  hydrogen,  iron,  lead,  calcium, 
aluminium,  magnesium,  sodium,  potassium,  etc.;  and  if  others,  such  as 
oxygen,  carbon,  and  chlorine  have  not  yet  been  found,  good  reasons 
may  be  assigned  why  they  may  not  exist  in  a  state  likely  to  give  recog- 
nizable spectrum-lines.  The  main  fact  is  firmly  established  that  mat- 
ter is  the  same  throughout  all  space,  from  the  minutest  atom  to  the 
remotest  star. 

Thus  far  wre  have  been  treating  of  matter  only,  and  of  force 
.  and  motion  but  incidentally.  These,  however,  are  equally  essential 
components  of  the  phenomena  of  the  universe.  What  is  force?  In  the 
last  analysis  it  is  the  unknown  cause  which  we  assume  for  motion,  or 
the  term  in  which  we  sum  up  whatever  produces  or  tends  to  produce 
it.  The  idea  of  force,  like  so  many  other  of  our  ideas,  is  taken  from 
our  own  sensations.  If  we  lift  a  weight  or  bend  a  bow,  we  are 
conscious  of  doing  so  by  an  effort.  Something  which  we  call  will 
produces  a  motion  in  the  molecules  of  the  brain,  which  is  transmitted 
by  the  nerves  to  the  muscles,  where  it  liberates  a  certain  amount  of 


40        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

energy  stored  up  by  the  chemical  composition  and  decomposition  of 
the  atoms  of  food  which  we  consume.  This  contracts  the  muscle,  and 
the  force  of  its  contraction,  transmitted  by  a  system  of  pulleys  and 
levers  to  the  hand,  lifts  the  weight.  If  we  let  go  the  weight  it  falls, 
and  the  force  which  lifted  it  reappears  in  the  force  with  which  it 
strikes  the  ground.  If  we  do  not  let  go  the  weight  but  place  it  on  a 
support  at  the  height  to  which  we  have  raised  it,  it  does  not  fall,  no 
motion  ensues,  but  the  lifting  force  remains  stored  up  in  a  tendency 
to  motion,  and  can  be  made  to  reappear  as  motion  at  any  time  by 
withdrawing  the  support,  when  the  weight  will  fall.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  force  may  exist  in  two  forms,  either  as  actually  causing 
motion  or  as  causing  a  tendency  to  motion. 

In  this  generalized  form  it  has  been  agreed  to  call  it  energy,  as 
less  liable  to  be  obscured  by  the  ordinary  impressions  attached  to  the 
word  force,  which  are  mainly  derived  from  experiences  of  actual 
motion  cognizable  by  the  senses.  We  speak,  therefore,  of  energy  as 
of  something  which  is  the  basis  or  primum  mobile  of  all  motion  or 
tendency  to  motion,  whether  it  be  in  the  grosser  forms  of  gravity  and 
mechanical  work,  or  in  the  subtler  forms  of  moleculer  and  atomic 
motions  causing  the  phenomena  of  heat,  light,  electricity,  magnetism, 
and  chemical  action.  This  energy  may  exist  either  in  the  form  of 
actual  motion,  when  it  is  called  energy  of  motion,  or  in  that  of  ten- 
dency to  motion,  when  it  is  called  energy  of  position.  Thus  the  bent 
bow  has  energy  of  position  which,  when  the  string  is  let  go,  is  at  once 
converted  into  energy  of  motion  in  the  flight  of  the  arrow. 

Respecting  this  energy  modern  science  has  arrived  at  this  grand 
generalization,  that  it  is  one  and  the  same  in  all  its  different  manifes- 
tations, and  can  neither  be  created  nor  destroyed,  so  that  all  these 
varied  manifestations  are  mere  transformations  of  the  same  primitive 
energy  from  one  form  to  another.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  "Conservation  of  Energy." 

It  was  arrived  at  in  this  way.  Speaking  roughly  it  has  long  been 
known  that  he-it  could  generate  mechanical  power,  as  seen  in  the 
steam-engine;  and  conversely  that  mechanical  power  could  generate 
heat,  as  is  seen  when  a  sailor,  in  a  chill  north-easter,  claps  his  arms 
together  on  his  breast  to  warm  himself.  But  it  was  reserved  for  Dr. 
Joule  to  give  this  fact  the  scientific  precision  of  a  natural  law,  by 
actually  measuring  the  amount  of  heat  that  was  added  to  a  given 
weight  of  water  by  a  given  expenditure  of  mechanical  power,  and 
conversely  the  amount  of  mechanical  work  that  could  be  got  from  a 
given  expenditure  of  heat. 

A  vast  number  of  carefully-conducted  experiments  have  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  if  a  kilogramme  be  allowed  to  fall  through  424  metres 
and  its  motion  be  then  suddenly  stopped,  sufficient  heat  will  be 
generated  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  kilogramme  of  water  by  1° 
Centigrade;  and  conversely  this  amount  of  heat  would  be  sufficient  to 
raise  one  kilogramme  to  a  height  of  424  metres. 

If,  therefore,  we  take  as  our  unit  of  work  that  of  raising  one 
kilogramme  one  metre,  and  as  our  unit  of  heat  that  necessary  to  raise 
one  kilogramme,  of  water  1°  Centigrade,  we  may  express  the  propor- 
tion of  heat  to  work  by  Paying  that  one  unit  of  heat  is  equal  to  424 
units  of  work;  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  expressed,  that  the  number  424 
is  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat. 

But  the  question  may  be  asked,  what  does  this  mean,  how  can 


MATTER.  41 

mechanical  work  be  really  transformed  into  heat  or  vice  versdf  The 
answer  is,  the  energy  which  was  supplied  by  chemical  action  to  the 
muscles  of  the  man  or  horse,  or  to  the  water  converted  into  steam  by 
combustion  of  coal,  which  originated  the  mechanical  work,  was  first 
transformed  into  its  equivalent  amount  of  mechanical  energy  of 
motion,  and  then,  when  that  motion  was  arrested,  was  transformed 
into  heat,  which  is  simply  the  same  energy  transformed  into  increased 
molecular  motion. 

If  we  wish  to  carry  our  inquiry  a  step  further  back  and  ask  where 
the  original  energy  came  from  which  has  undergone  these  transforma- 
tions, the  answer  must  be,  mainly  from  the  sun.  The  sun's  rays,  acting 
on  the  chlorophyl  or  green  matter  of  the  plants  of  the  coal  era,  tore 
asunder  the  atoms  of  carbon  and  oxygen  which  formed  the  carbonic 
acid  in  the  atmosphere,  and  locked  up  a  store  of  energy  in  the  form  of 
-carbon  in  the  coal  which  is  burned  to  produce  the  steam.  In  like 
manner  it  stored  up  the  energy  in  the  form  of  carbon  in  the  vegetable 
products  which,  either  directly,  or  indirectly  after  having  passed 
through  the  body  of  some  animal,  supplied  the  food,  whose  slow  com- 
bustion in  the  man  or  horse  supplied  the  energy  which  did  the  work. 

But  where  did  the  energy  come  from  which  the  sun  has  been 
pouring  forth  for  countless  ages  in  the  form  of  light  and  heat,  and  of 
which  our  earth  only  intercepts  the  minutest  portion?  This  is  a  mys- 
tery not  yet  completely  solved,  but  one  real  cause  we  can  see,  which 
has  certainly  operated  and  perhaps  been  the  only  one,  viz.,  the  mechan- 
ical energy  of  the  condensation  by  gravity  of  the  atoms  which  originally 
formed  the  nebulous  matter  out  of  which  the  sun  was  made.  If  we 
ask  how  came  the  atoms  into  existence  endowed  with  this  marvellous 
energy,  we  have  reached  the  furthest  bounds  of  human  knowledge, 
and  can  only  reply  in  the  words  of  the  poet:  "Behind  the  veil,  behind 
the  veil." 

We  can  only  form  metaphysical  conceptions,  or  I  might  rather 
call  them  the  vaguest  guesses.  One  is,  that  they  were  created  and 
endowed  with  their  elementary  properties  by  an  all-wise  and  all- 
powerful  Creator.  This  is  Theism. 

Another,  that  thought  is  the  only  reality,  and  that  all  the  phenom- 
ena of  the  universe  are  thoughts  or  ideas  of  one  universal,  all-pervad- 
ing Mind.  This  is  Pantheism. 

Or  again,  we  may  frankly  acknowledge  that  the  real  essence  and 
origin  of  things  are  "behind  the  veil,"  and  not  knowable  or  even 
conceivable  by  any  faculties  with  which  the  human  mind  is  endowed 
in  its  present  state  of  existence.  This  is  Agnosticism. 

There  is  one  other  conception,  of  which  we  may  certainly  say 
that  it  is  not  true — that  is  Atheism.  No  one  with  the  least  knowl- 
edge of  science  can  maintain  that  it  can  ever  be  demonstrated  that 
everything  in  the  universe  exists  of  itself  and  never  had  a  Creator. 

But  these  speculations  lead  us  into  the  misty  regions  where,  like 
Milton's  devils,  "we  find  no  end  in  wandering  mazes  lost."  Let  us 
return  to  the  solid  ground  of  fact,  on  which  alone  the  human  mind 
can  stand  firmly,  and  like  Antaeus  gather  fresh  vigor  every  time  it 
touches  it  for  further  efforts  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  knowledge 
and  extend  the  domain  of  Cosmos  over  Chaos. 

The  transformation  of  energy  which  we  have  seen  to  exist  in  the 
<?ase  of  mechanical  work  and  heat,  is  not  confined  to  those  two  cases 
only,  but  is  a  universal  law  applicable  to  all  actions  and  arrangements 


42         MODERX  SCIEXCE  AXD  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

of  matter  which  involve  motions  of  atoms,  molecules,  or  masses,  and 
therefore  imply  the  existence  of  energy.  In  heat  we  have  had  an 
example  of  energy  exerted  in  molecular  motion  and  molecular  separa- 
tion. In  chemical  action  we  have  energy  exerted  in  the  separation  of 
atoms,  severing  them  from  old  combinations  and  mutual  attractions, 
and  bringing  them  within  the  sphere  of  new  ones.  In  electricity,  and 
magnetism  which  is  another  form  of  electricity,  we  have  energy  of 
position  which  manifests  itself  in  electrical  separation,  by  which  matter 
becomes  charged  with  two  opposite  energies,  positive  and  negative, 
which  accumulate  at  separate  poles,  or  on  separate  surfaces,  with 
an  amount  of  tension  which  may  be  reconverted  into  the  original 
amount  of  energy  of  motion  when  the.  spark,  passing  between  them, 
restores  their  electrical  equilibrium.  Of  this  we  have  an  example  in 
the  ordinary  electrical  machine,  where  the  original  energy  comes  from, 
the  mechanical  force  which  turns  the  handle,  and  is  given  back  when 
the  electric  spark  brings  things  back  to  their  original  state. 

'We  have  also  energy  of  motion,  when  instead  of  electrical  separa- 
tion and  tension  we  have  a  flow  or  current  of  electricity  producing  the 
effect  of  the  electric  spark  in  a  slovy,  quiet,  and  continuous  manner. 
Thus,  in  the  voltaic  battery,  the  free  energy  created  by  the  difference 
of  chemical  action  of  an  acid  on  plates  of  different  metals,  is  trans- 
formed into  a  current  which  charges  two  poles  with  opposite  elec- 
tricities, and  when  the  poles  are  brought  together  and  the  circuit  is 
closed,  flows  through  it  in  a  continuous  current.  This  current  is 
an  energetic  agent  which  produces  various  effects.  It  deflects  the 
magnetic  needle,  as  is  seen  in  the  electric  telegraph.  It  creates 
magnetism,  as  is  seen  when  the  poles  of  the  battery  are  connected 
by  a  wire  wrapped  round  and  round  a  cylinder  of  soft  iron,  so  as  to 
make  the  current  circulate  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  formed  by  the 
cylinder.  In  fact,  all  magnetism  may  be  consided  as  the  summing  up 
at  the  two  opposite  extremities  or  poles  of  an  axis,  of  the  effects  of 
electric  currents  circulating  round  it;  as,  for  instance,  the  earth  is  a 
great  magnet  because  currents  caused  by  the  action  of  the  sun  circu- 
late round  it  nearly  parallel  to  the  equator.  Electric  currents  further 
show  their  energy  by  attracting  and  repelling  one  another,  those 
flowing  in  the  same  direction  attracting,  and  those  in  opposite  direc- 
tions repelling,  the  same  effect  showing  itself  in  magnets,  which  are 
in  substance  collections  of  circular  currents  flowing  from  right  to  left 
or  left  to  right  according  as  they  are  positive  or  negative.  Again, 
currents  produce  an  effect  by  inducing  currents  in  other  bodies  placed 
near  them,  very  much  as  the  vibrations  of  a  tuning-fork  induce  vibra- 
tions and  bring  out  a  corresponding  note  from  the  strings  of  a  piano 
or  violin  ready  to  sound  it.  When  a  coil  of  wire  is  connected  with  a 
battery  and  a  current  passes  through  it,  if  it  is  brought  near  to  another 
isolated  coil  it  induces  a  current  in  an  opposite  direction,  which,  when 
it  recedes  from  it,  is  changed  into  a  current  in  the  same  direction. 

These  principles  are  illustrated  by  the  ordinary  dynamo,  by  which 
the  energy  of  mechanical  work  exerted  in  making  magnets  revolve  in 
presence  of  currents,  and  by  various  devices  accumulating  electric 
energy,  is  made  available  either  for  doing  other  mechanical  work,  such 
as  driving  a  wheel,  or  for  doing  molecular  or  atomic  work  by  pro- 
ducing heat  and  light. 

For  another  transformation  of  the  energy  of  electric  currents  is 
into  heat,  light,  or  chemical  action.  If  the  two  poles  of  a  battery  are 


MATTER.  4£ 

connected  by  a  thin  platinum  wire  it  will  be  heated  to  redness  in  a 
few  seconds,  the  friction  or  resistance  to  the  currant  in  passing  through 
the  limited  section  of  the  thin  wire  producing  great  heat.  If  the 
wire  is  thicker  heat  will  equally  be  produced,  but  more  slowly. 

If  the  poles  of  the  battery  are  made  of  carbon,  or  some  substance 
the  particles  of  which  remain  solid  during  intense  heat,  when  they  are 
brought  nearly  together  the  current  will  be  completed  by  an  arc  of 
intensely  brilliant  light,  and  the  carbon  will  slowly  burn  away.  This 
is  the  electric  light  so  commonly  used  when  great  illuminating  power 
is  wanted. 

Again,  the  electric  current  may  employ  its  energy  in  effecting 
chemical  action.  If  the  poles  of  a  battery,  instead  of  being  brought 
together,  are  plunged  into  a  vessel  of  water,  decomposition  will  begin. 
Oxygen  will  rise  in  small  bubbles  at  the  positive  pole,  and  hydrogen 
at  the  negative.  If  these  two  gases  are  collected  together  in  the  same 
vessel,  and  an  electric  current,  in  the  intense  and  momentary  form  of 
a  spark,  passed  through  them,  they  will  combine  with  explosion  into 
the  exact  amount  of  water  which  was  decomposed  in  their  formation. 

Everywhere,  therefore,  we  find  the  same  law  of  universal  applica- 
tion. Energy,  like  matter,  cannot  be  created  or  destroyed,  but  only 
transformed.  It  is  therefore,  in  one  sense,  eternal.  But  there  is 
another  point  of  view  from  which  this  has  to  be  regarded. 

Mechanical  work,  as  we  have  seen,  can  always  be  converted  into 
heat,  and  heat  can,  under  certain  conditions,  be  reconverted  into 
mechanical  work;  but  not  under  all  conditions.  The  heat  must  pass 
from  something  at  a  higher  temperature  into  something  at  a  lower.  If 
the  condenser  of  a  steam-engine  were  always  at  the  same  temperature 
as  the  boiler,  we  should  get  no  work  out  of  it.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand how  this  is  the  case  if  we  figure  to  ourselves  a  river  running  down, 
into  a  lake.  If  the  stream  is  dammed  up  at  two  different  levels,  each 
dam,  as  long  as  there  is  water  in  it,  will  turn  a  mill-wheel.  But  if  all  the 
water  runs  down  into  the  lake  and,  owing  to  a  dry  season,  there  is  no 
fresh  supply,  the  wheels  will  stop  and  we  can  get  no  more  work  done. 
So  with  heat,  if  it  all  runs  down  to  one  uniform  temperature  it  can  no 
longer  be  made  available  to  do  work.  In  the  case  of  the  river,  fresh 
water  is  supplied  at  the  higher  levels,  by  the  sun's  energy  raising 'it  by 
evaporation  from  the  seas  to  the  clouds,  from  which  it  is  deposited  as 
rain  or  snow.  But  in  the  case  of  heat  there  is  no  such  self-restoring 
process,  and  the  tendency  is  always  towards  its  dissipation;  or  in  other 
words,  towards  a  more  uniform  distribution  of  heat  throughout  all 
existing  matter.  The  process  is  very  slow;  the  original  fund  of  high- 
temperature  heat  is  enormous,  and  as  long  as  matter  goes  on  condens- 
ing fresh  supplies  of  heat  are,  so  to  speak,  squeezed  out  of  it. 

Stiil  there  is  a  limit  to  condensation,  while  there  is  no  limit  to  the 
tendency  of  heat  to  diffuse  itself  from  hotter  to  colder  matter  until  all 
temperatures  are  equalized.  The  energy  is  not  destroyed;  it  is  still 
there  in  the  same  average  amount  of  total  heat,  though  no  longer  dif- 
ferentiated into  greater  and  lesser  heats,  and  therefore  no  longer  avail- 
able for  life,  motion,  or  any  other  form  of  transformation.  This  seems 
to  be  the  case  with  the  moon,  which,  being  so  much  smaller,  has  sooner 
equalized  its  heat  with  surrounding  space,  and  is  apparently  a  burnt-out 
and  dried-up  cinder  without  air  or  water.  And  this,  as  far  as  we  see, 
must  be  the  ultimate  fate  of  all  planets,  suns,  and  solar  systems.  For- 
tunately the  process  is  extremely  slow,  for  even  our  small  earth  has. 


44         MODERX  SCIENCE  AXD  MODERX  THOUGHT. 

-enjoyed  air,  water,  sunshine,  and  all  the  present  conditions  necessary 
for  life  for  the  whole  geological  period,  certainly  from  the  Silurian  epoch 
downwards,  if  not  earlier,  which  cannot  well  be  less  than  100  millions 
of  years,  and  may  be  much  more.  Still  time,  even  if  reckoned  by  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  years,  is  not  eternity;  and  as,  looking  through  the 
telescope  at  nebulae  which  appear  to  be  condensing  about  central 
nuclei,  we  can  dimly  discern  a  beginning,  so,  looking  at  the  moon  and 
reasoning  from  established  principles  as  to  the  dissipation  of  heat,  we 
can  dimly  discern  an  end.  What  we  really  can  see  is  that  throughout 
the  whole  of  this  enormous  range  of  space  and  time  law  prevails;  that, 
given  the  original  atoms  and  energies  with  their  original  qualities, 
everything  else  follows  in  a  regular  and  inevitable  succession;  and  that 
the  whole  material  universe  is  a  clock,  so  perfectly  constructed  from  the 
beginning  as  to  require  no  outside  interference  during  the  time  it  has 
to  run  to  keep  it  going  with  absolute  correctness. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

LIFE. 

THE  universe  is  divided  into  two  worlds — the  inorganic,  or  world 
of  dead  matter;  and  the  organic,  or  world  of  life.  What  is  life? 
In  its  essence  it  is  a  state  of  matter  in  which  the  particles  are  in  a 
continued  state  of  flux,  and  the  individual  existence  depends,  not  on 
the  same  particles  remaining  in  the  same  definite  shape,  but  on  the 
permanence  of  a  definite  mould  or  form  through  which  fresh  particles 
are  continually  entering,  forming  new  combinations  and  passing  away. 
It  may  assist  in  forming  a  conception  of  this  if  we  imagine  ourselves 
to  be  looking  at  a  mountain  the  top  of  which  is  enveloped  in  a  driving 
mist.  The  mountain  is  dead  matter,  the  particles  of  which  continue 
fixed  in  the  rocks.  But  the  cloud  form  which  envelops  it  is  a  mould 
into  which  fresh  particles  of  vapor  are  continually  entering  and  becom- 
ing visible  on  the  windward  side,  and  passing  away  and  disappearing 
to  leeward.  If  we  add  to  this  the  conception  that  the  particles  do  not, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  cloud,  simply  enter  in  and  pass  away  without 
change,  but  are  digested,  that  is,  undergo  chemical  changes  by  which 
they  are  partly  assimilated  and  worked  up  into  component  parts  of 
the  mould,  and  partly  thrown  off  in  new  combinations,  we  shall  arrive 
at  something  which  is  not  far  off  the  ultimate  idea  of  what  constitutes 
living  matter,  in  its  simplest  form  of  the  protoplasm,  or  speck  of  jelly- 
like  substance,  which  is  shown  to  be  the  primitive  basis  or  raw  material 
of  all  the  more  complex  forms  both  of  vegetable  and  animal  life. 
Digestion,  therefore,  is  the  primary  attribute.  A  crystal  grows  from 
without,  by  taking  on  fresh  particles  and  building  them  up  in  regular 
layers  according  to  fixed  laws,  just  as  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  were  built 
up  by  laying  layer  upon  layer  of  squared  stones  upon  surfaces  formed 
of  regular  figures,  and  inclined  to  each  other  at  determinate  angles. 

The  living  plant  or  animal  grows  from  within  by  taking  supplies 
of  fresh  matter  into  its  inner  laboratory,  where  it  is  worked  up  into  a 
variety  of  complex  products  needed  for  the  existence  and  reproduction 
of  life.  After  supplying  these,  the  residue  is  given  back  in  various 
forms  to  the  inorganic  world,  and  the  final  residue  of  all  is  given  back 
by  death,  which  is  the  ultimate  end  of  all  life 


LIFE.  45 

The  simplest  form  of  life,  in  which  it  first  emerges  from  the  inor- 
ganic into  the  organic  world,  consists  of  protoplasm,  or,  as  it  has  been 
called,  the  physical  basis  of  life.  Protoplasm  is  a  colorless  semi-fluid  or 
jelly-like  substance,  which  consists  of  albuminoid  matter,  or  in  other 
words,  of  a  heterogeneous  carbon-compound  of  very  complex  chemical 
composition.  It  exists  in  every  living  cell,  and  performs  the  functions 
of  nutrition  and  reproduction,  as  well  as  of  sensation  and  motion.  In 
its  simplest  form,  that  of  the  microscopic  monera  or  protista,  the  lowest 
of  living  beings,  we  find  a  homogeneous  structureless  piece  of  proto- 
plasm, without  any  differentiation  of  parts.  The  monera  are  simple  living 
globules  of  jelly,  without  even  a  nucleus  or  any  sort  of  organ,  and  yet 
they  perform  all  the  essential  functions  of  life  without  any  different 
parts  being  told  off  for  particular  functions.  Every  particle  or  mole- 
cule is  of  the  same  chemical  composition  and  a  fac-simile  of  the  whole 
body,  as  in  the  case  of  a  crystal.  They  are,  therefore,  the  first  step 
from  the  inorganic  into  the  organic  world,  and  i{  spontaneous  genera- 
tion takes  place  anywhere,  it  is  in  the  passage  of  the  chemical  elements 
from  the  simple  and  stable  combinations  of  the  former  into  the  complex, 
and  plastic  combinations  of  the  latter. 

These  monera  are  found  principally  in  the  sea  and  in  great  masses 
at  the  bottom  of  deep  oceans,  where  they  form  a  sort  of  living  slime 
first  described  by  Huxley  in  1868,  and  called  Bathybius. 

The  next  step  upwards  is  to  the  cell  in  which  the  protoplasm  is 
enclosed  in  a  skin  or  membrane  of  modified  protoplasm,  and  a  nucleus, 
or  denser  spot,  is  developed  in  the  enclosed  mass.  This  is  the  primary 
element  from  which  all  the  more  complicated  forms  of  life  are  built  up. 
Each  cell  seems  to  have  an  independent  life  of  its  own,  and  a  faculty  of 
reproduction  by  splitting  into  fresh  cells  similar  to  itself,  which  multi- 
ply in  geometrical  progression,  assimilating  the  elements  of  their  sub- 
stance from  the  inorganic  world  so  rapidly  as  to  provide  the  requisite 
raw  material  for  higher  structures. 

The  first  organized  living  forms  are  extremely  minute,  and  can  only 
be  recognized  by  powerful  microscopes.  A  filtered  infusion  of  hay, 
allowed  to  stand  for  two  days,  will  swarm  with  living  things,  a  number 
of  which  do  not  exceed  40)Joo  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Minute  as  these- 
animalcula  are,  they  are  thoroughly  alive.  They  dart  about  and 
digest;  the  smallest  speck  of  jelly-like  substance  shoots  out  branches 
or  processes  to  seize  food,  and  if  these  come  in  collision  with  other 
substances  they  withdraw  them.  They  exist  in  countless  myriads, 
and  perform  a  very  important  part  in  the  economy  of  nature.  They 
are  the  scavengers  of  the  universe,  and  remove  the  remains  of  living 
matter  after  death,  which  would  otherwise  accumulate  until  they 
choked  up  the  earth.  This  they  do  by  the  process  of  putrefaction, 
which  is  due  mainly  to  the  multiplication  of  little  rod-like  creatures 
known  as  bacteria,  which  work  up  the  once  living,  now  dead,  matter 
into  fresh  elements,  again  fitted  to  play  their  part  in  the  inorganic 
and  organic  worlds. 

One  of  the  simplest  of  these  forms  is  the  amoeba,  which  is  nothing 
but  a  naked  little  lump  of  cell-matter,  or  plasma,  containing  a  nucleus; 
and  yet  this  little  speck  of  jelly  moves  freely,  it  shoots  out  tongues  or 
processes  and  gradually  draws  itself  up  to  them  with  a  sort  of  wave- 
like  motion;  it  eats  and  grows,  and  in  growing  reproduces  itself  by 
contracting  in  the  middle  and  splitting  up  into  two  independent 
amoebae. 


46         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

The  germs  of  these  various  animalcula  swarm  in  the  air,  and  carry 
seeds  of  infection  everywhere  where  they  find  a  soil  fitted  to  receive 
them;  and  thus  assist  the  survival  of  the  fittest  in  the  struggle  of 
life,  by  eliminating  weak  and  unhealthy  individuals  and  species.  Thus 
when  the  potato,  the  vine,  or  the  silk-worm  has  had  its  constitution 
enfeebled  by  prolonged  artificial  culture,  there  are  germs  always  ready 
to  revenge  the  violation  of  natural  laws,  and  bring  the  survivors  back 
to  a  more  healthy  condition.  In  like  manner  the  germs  of  cholera, 
typhoid,  and  scarlet  fever,  enforce  the  observance  of  sanitary  principles. 

In  this  simple  form  the  lowest  forms  of  life  are  not  yet  sufficiently 
differentiated  to  enable  us  to  distinguish  clearly  between  animal  and 


AMOEBA.        AMCEBA  dividing  into  two. 

Tegetable.  and  they  have  been  called  by  some  naturalists  Protista, 
while  others  designate  them  as  Protozoa  or  Protophyta,  according  as 
they  show  more  resemblance  to  one  or  the  other  form  of  life.  But  it 
is  often  so  doubtful  that  in  looking  at  the  same  organism  through  a 
microscope,  Huxley  was  inclined  to  consider  it  as  a  plant,  while  Tyndall 
exclaimed  that  he  could  as  soon  believe  that  a  sheep  was  a  vegetable. 

In  the  next  stage  upwrards,  however,  life  subdivides  itself  into 
two  great  kingdoms,  that  of  the  vegetable  and  of  the  animal  world. 
Alike  in  their  general  definition  as  contrasted  with  inorganic  matter, 
and  in  their  common  origin  from  an  embryo  cell,  which  divides  and 
subdivides  until  cell-aggregates  are  formed,  from  which  the  living 
form  is  built  up  by  a  process  of  evolution,  the  plant  differs  from  the 
animal  in  this:  that  the  former  feeds  directly  on  inorganic  matter, 
while  the  latter  can  only  feed  on  it  indirectly,  after  it  has  been  manu- 
factured by  the  plant  into  vegetable  substance. 

This  is  universally  true,  for  if  we  dine  on  beef,  we  dine  practically 
on  the  grass  which  the  ox  ate;  that  is,  on  the  carbon,  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, and  other  simple  elements  which  the  grass,  under  the  stimulus 
of  light  and  sunshine,  manufactured  into  complex  compounds;  and 
which  the  ox  again,  by  a  second  process,  manufactured  from  these 
compounds  into  others  still  more  complex,  and  more  easily  assimilated 
by  us  in  the  process  of  digestion.  But  in  no  case  can  we  dine,  as  the 
plant  does,  on  the  simple  elements,  and  thrive  on  a  diet  of  air  and 
water,  with  a  small  admixture  of  nitrate  of  ammonia,  and  of  phosphates, 
sulphates  and  chlorides,  of  a  few  primitive  metals.  Vegetable  life, 
therefore,  is  the  producer,  and  animal  life  the  consumer,  of  the  organic 
world. 

Practically  the  plant  derives  most  of  its  substance  from  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  atmosphere,  which  green  leaves  under  the 
stimulus  of  light  and  heat  have  the  faculty  of  decomposing,  and 


LIFE.  47 

abstract  the  carbon  giving  out  the  oxygen;  while  the  animal,  by  a 
reverse  process,  burns  up  the  compounds  manufactured  by  the  plant, 
principally  out  of  this  carbon,  by  the  oxygen  obtained  from  the  air 
by  the  process  of  respiration,  exhaling  the  surplus  carbon  in  the  form 
of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

The  balancing  effect  of  these  two  processes  may  be  seen  in  any 
aquarium,  where  animals  and  vegetables  live  together  in  water  which 
is  kept  pure,  while  it  would  become  stagnant  and  poisonous  in  a  few 
hours,  if  one  of  the  two  forms  of  life  were  removed.  All  that  the 
animal  requires  therefore  for  its  existence,  materials  with  which  to 
l>uild  up  its  frame  and  supply  waste;  heat  with  which  to  maintain  its 
circulating  fluids  and  other  substances  at  a  proper  temperature; 
motive  power  or  energy  to  enable  it  to  move,  feel,  and  in  the  case  of 
man  to  think;  are  all  proceeds  of  the  slow  combustion  of  materials 
derived  from  the  vegetable  world  in  the  oxygen  breathed  from  the 
air,  just  as  the  work  done  by  a  steam-engine  is  the  product  of  a  similar 
combustion,  or  chemical  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with  the 
coal  shovelled  into  the  fire-box.  These  distinctions,  however,  between 
animals  and  vegetables  are  not  quite  absolute,  for,  even  in  the  more 
highly-organized  forms  of  life,  there  is  a  border-land  where  some  plants 
seem  to  perform  the  functions  of  animals,  as  in  those  which  catch  and 
•consume  flies  and  eat  and  digest  pieces  of  raw  meat. 

Those  who  wish  to  pursue  this  interesting  subject  further  will  do 
well  to  read  the  Chapter  on  Living  Matter  in  Huxley's  "Physiography," 
where  they  will  find  it  more  fully  explained,  with  the  inimitable  clear- 
ness which  characterizes  all  the  writings  of  an  author  who  is  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  first  scientific  authorities  and  one  of  the  grea-test 
masters  of  English  prose.  But  my  present  object  is  not  to  write  a 
scientific  treatise,  but  shortly  to  sum  up  the  ascertained  results  of 
modern  science,  with  a  view  to  their  bearings  on  modern  thought;  and 
from  this  point  of  view  the  immediate  question  is,  ho\v  far  law,  which 
has  been  shown  to  prevail  universally  throughout  space,  time,  and 
inorganic  matter,  can  be  shown  to  prevail  equally  throughout  the 
world  of  life. 

Up  to  a  certain  point  this  admits  of  positive  proof.  It  is  as 
certain  that  all  individual  life,  from  the  most  elementary  protoplasm 
up  to  the  highest  organism  Man,  originates  in  a  minute  or  embryo 
cell,  as  it  is  that  oxygen  and  hydrogen  combined  in  certain  proportions 
make  water.  But  if  we  try  to  go  back  one  step  further,  behind  the 
<;ell,  we  are  stopped.  In  the  inorganic  world  we  can  reason  our  way 
beyond  the  microscopic  matter  to  the  molecule,  and  from  the  molecule 
to  the  atom,  and  are  only  arrested  when  we  come  to  the  ultimate  form 
of  matter,  and  of  energy,  out  of  which  the  universe  is  built  up.  But, 
in  the  case  of  life,  we  are  stopped  two  steps  short  of  this,  and  cannot 
tell  how  the  cell  containing  the  germ  of  life  is  built  up  out  of  the 
simpler  elements. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  bridge  over  this  gulf,  and  show 
how  life  may  originate  in  chemical  compounds,  but  hitherto  without 
success.  Experiments  have  besn  made  which,  for  a  time,  seemed  to 
show  that  spontaneous  generation  was  a  scientific  fact,  i.e.,  that  the 
lowest  forms  of  life,  such  as  bacteria  and  amoeba,  really  did  originate 
in  infusions  containing  no  germs  of  life;  but  they  have  been  met  by 
counter  experiments  confirming  Harvey's  dictum,  "Omne  animal  ex 
ovo,"  or  all  life  proceeds  from  antecedent  germs  of  life,  and  the  verdict 


48        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

of  the  best  authorities,  such  as  Pasteur,  Tyndall,  and  Huxley  is,  that 
spontaneous  generation  has  been  ''defeated  along  the  whole  line.'* 
This  verdict  is  perhaps  too  unqualified,  for  it  certainly  appears  that, 
on  the  assumption  with  which  both  sides  started,  that  all  organic 
life  was  destroyed  by  exposure  to  a  heat  of  212°,  or  the  boiling-point 
of  water,  the  advocates  of  spontaneous  generation  had  the  best  of  it, 
as  low  forms  of  life  did  appear  in  infusions  which  had  been  exposed 
to  this  heat,  and  then  hermetically  sealed,  so  as  to  prevent  any  germs 
from  entering.  But  it  was  replied  that,  as  a  hard  pea  takes  more 
boiling  than  a  soft  one,  it  might  very  well  be  that  heat  sufficient  to 
destroy  life  in  any  moist  organism  of  sufficient  size  to  be  seen  by  the 
microscope,  might  not  destroy  the  germinating  power  of  ultra-micro- 
scopic germs  in  a  very  dry  state.  And  this  position  seems  to  have 
been  confirmed  by  various  experiments,  showing  that  such  ultra- 
microscopic  germs  really  do  exist,  and  are  given  forth  in  the  last  life 
stage  of  the  bacteria  which  cause  putrefaction;  and  that  if  they  are 
absent  or  destroyed  by  repeated  applications  of  heat,  infusions  will 
keep  sweet  for  ever  in  optically  pure  air. 

Above  all,  the  germ  theory  has  received  confirmation  from  the 
brilliant  practical  results  to  which  it  has  led  in  the  hands  of  Pasteur, 
enabling  him  to  detect,  and  to  a  great  extent  eradicate,  the  causes 
which  had  led  to  the  oidium  of  the  vine  and  the  pebrine  of  the  silk- 
worm, thereby  saving  losses  of  millions  to  the  industries  of  France. 
The  germ  theory  has  also  led  to  important  results  in  medical  science, 
and  is  pointing  towards  the  possibility  of  combating  the  most  fatal 
diseases  by  processes  analogous  to  that  by  which  vaccination  has 
almost  freed  the  human  race  from  the  scourge  of  small-pox. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  we  must  be  content  to  accept  a  verdict 
of  "  Not  proven "  in  the  case  of  spontaneous  generation,  and  admit 
that  as  regards  the  first  origin  of  life,  science  fails  us,  and  there  is  at 
present  no  known  law  that  will  account  for  it. 

Should  spontaneous  generation  ever  be  proved  to  be  a  fact,  it 
will  doubtless  be  in  creating  living  protoplasm  from  inorganic  ele- 
ments at  its  earliest  stage,  before  it  has  been  differentiated  even  into 
the  primitive  form  of  a  nucleated  cell  or  that  of  an  amoeba.  This  is 
what  the  doctrine  of  evolution  would  lead  us  to  expect,  for  it  would 
be  in  contradiction  to  it  to  suppose  that  the  starting-point  could  be 
interpolated  at  any  stage  subsequent  to  the  lowest.  It  may  be  also 
that  this  step  could  only  be  made  under  conditions  of  heat,  pressure, 
and  otherwise,  which  existed  in  the  earlier  stage  of  the  earth's  existence, 
but  have  long  since  passed  away. 

This,  however,  is  only  a  small  part  of  the  difficulty  we  have  to 
encounter  in  reducing  life  to  law. 

These  primeval  embyro  cells,  like  as  they  are  in  appearance, 
contain  within  them  the  germs  of  an  almost  infinite  diversity  of  evolu- 
tions, each  running  its  separate  course  distinct  from  the  others.  The 
world  of  life  is  not  one  and  uniform,  but  consists  of  a  vast  variety  of 
different  species,  from  the  speck  of  protoplasm  up  to  the  forest  tree, 
and  from  the  humble  amoeba  up  to  man,  each  one,  at  any  rate  within 
long  intervals  of  time,  breeding  true  and  keeping  to  its  own  separate 
and  peculiar  path  along  the  line  of  evolution. 

The  first  germ,  or  nucleated  cell,  of  a  bacteria  develops  into  other 
bacteria  and  nothing  else,  that  of  a  coral  into  corals,  of  an  oak  into 
oaks,  of  an  elephamt  into  elephants,  of  a  man  into  man.  la  the  latter 


LIFE.  49 

case  we  can  trace  the  embryo  in  its  various  stages  of  growth  through 
forms  having  a  certain  analogy  to  those  of  the  fish,  the  reptile,  and 
the  lower  mammals,  until  it  finally  takes  that  of  the  human  infant. 
But  we  have  no  experience  of  a  fish,  a  frog,  or  a  dog,  being  ever  born 
of  human  parents,  or  of  any  of  the  lower  animals  ever  producing 
anything  resembling  a  man. 

How  can  this  be  explained?  Naturally  the  first  attempt  at  explana- 
tion was  by  miracle.  At  a  time  when  everything  was  explained  by 
miracle,  when  all  unusual  occurrences  were  attributed  to  supernatural 
agency,  and  men  lived  in  an  atmosphere  of  providential  interferences, 
witchcraft,  magic,  and  all  sorts  of  divine  and  diabolic  agencies,  nothing 
seemed  easier  than  to  say  the  beasts  of  the  field,  the  birds  of  the  air, 
and  the  fishes  of  the  sea  are  all  distinct  after  their  kind,  because  God 
created  them  so. 

But  as  the  supernatural  faded  away  and  disappeared  in  other 
departments  where  it  had  so  long  reigned  supreme,  and  science  began 
to  classify,  arrange,  and  accumulate  facts  as  they  really  are,  it  became 
more  and  more  difficult,  or  rather  impossible,  to  accept  this  simple 
explanation.  The  very  first  step  destroyed  the  validity  of  all  the  tra- 
ditional myths  which  described  the  origin  of  life  from  one  simultaneous 
act  of  creation  at  a  single  centre.  The  earth  is  divided  into  separate 
zoological  provinces,  each  with  its  own  peculiar  animal  and  vegetable 
world.  The  kangaroo,  for  instance,  is  found  in  Australia  and  then* 
only.  By  no  possibility  could  the  aboriginal  kangaroo  have  jumped  at 
one  bound  from  Mount  Ararat  to  Australia,  leaving  no  trace  of  his 
passage  in  any  intermediate  district.  This  isolation  of  life  in  separate 
provinces  applies  so  rigidly,  that  we  may  sum  it  up  by  saying  generally 
lhat  there  are  no  forms  of  life  common  to  two  provinces  unless  where 
migration  is  possible,  or  has  been  possible  in  past  geological  periods. 

In  islands  at  a  distance  from  continents,  we  find  common  forms  of 
marine  life,  for  the  sea  affords  a  means  of  communication;  and  often 
common  forms  of  bird,  insect,  and  vegetable  life,  where  they  may 
have  been  wafted  by  the  winds;  but  forms  which  neither  in  the  adult 
or  germ  state  could  swim  or  fly,  or  be  transported  by  something  which  did 
swim  or  fly;  aro  invariably  wanting.  New  Zealand  affords  a  most  con- 
spicuous instance  of  this.  Here  is  a  large  country  with  a  soil  and 
climate  exceptionally  well  adapted  to  support  a  large  amount  of  animal 
life  of  the  higher  orders,  and  yet  it  had  absolutely  no  land  animals 
before  they  were  introduced  by  man.  If  special  creations  took  place 
to  replenish  the  earth  as  soon  as  any  portion  of  its  surface  becomes  fit 
to  sustain  it,  why  were  there  no  animals  in  New  Zealand?  Or,  in  the 
Andaman  Islands,  in  the  Gulf  of  Bengal,  which  are  as  large  as  Ireland, 
covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  within  300  miles  of  the  coast  of 
Asia,  .where  similar  jungles  swarm  with  elephants,  tigers,  deer,  and  all 
the  varied  forms  of  mammalian  life,  there  are  no  mammalia  except  a 
pigmy  black  savage  and  a  pigmy  black  pig,  the  latter  probably  intro- 
duced by  man. 

The  sharpness  of  the  division  between  zoological  provinces  is  well 
illustrated  by  that  drawn  by  the  Straits  of  Lombok,  where  a  channel, 
not  twenty  miles  wide,  separates  the  fauna  of  Asia  and  Australia  so 
completely  that  there  are  no  species  of  land  animals,  and  only  a  few  of 
birds  and  insects,  common  to  the  two  sides  of  a  channel  not  so  wide 
as  the  Straits  of  Dover. 

There  is  no  possibility  of  accounting  for  this,  except  by  supposing 


50         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

that  the  deep  water  fissure  of  the  Strait  of  Lombok  has  existed  from 
remote  geological  periods,and  barred  the  migration  southwards  of  those 
Asiatic  animals,  which,  as  long  as  they  found  dry  land,  migrated  north- 
wards and  westwards  till  they  were  stopped  by  the  Polar  and  Atlantic 
Oceans.  This  difficulty  of  requiring  special  creations  for  separate 
provinces  is  enormously  enhanced  if  we  look  beyond  the  existing  con- 
dition of  things,  and  trace  back  the  geological  record.  We  must  sup- 
pose separate  creations  for  all  the  separate  provinces  of  the  separate 
successive  formations  from  the  Silurian  upward.  And  the  more  we 
investigate  the  conditions  of  life  either  under  existing  circumstances 
or  in  those  of  past  geological  epochs,  the  more  enormously  are  we 
driven  to  multiply  the  number  of  separate  creations  which  would  be 
necessary  to  account  for  the  diversity  of  species.  We  find  life  shading 
off  into  an  indefinite  variety  of  almost  imperceptible  gradations 
from  the  highest  organism,  man,  to  the  lowest,  or  speck  of  protoplasm, 
and  we  can  draw  no  hard  and  fast  line  and  say,  up  to  this  point  life 
originated  in  law,  and  beyond  it  we  must  have  recourse  to  miracle. 
Either  all  life  or  none  is  a  product  of  evolution  acting  by  defined  law, 
and  the  affirmation  of  law  is  the  negation  of  miracle. 

Every  day  brings  us  an  account  of  some  new  discovery  bringing 
forms  of  life  nearer  together  and  bridging  over  intervals  thought  to  be 
impassable.  The  discovery  of  plants  living  on  insects,  and  which 
devour  and  digest  pieces  of  raw  meat,  has  added  to  the  difficulty  which 
has  been  long  felt,  in  the  humbler  forms  of  life,  of  drawing  any  clear 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  worlds. 

Microscopic  research  brings  to  light  fresh  facts  confounding  our 
fixed  ideas  as  to  the  permanence  of  particular  modes  of  reproducing 
life,  and  showing  that  the  same  organism  may  run  through  various 
metamorphoses  in  the  course  of  its  life-cycle,  during  some  of  which  it 
may  be  sexual  and  in  others  asexual,  i.e.,  it  may  reproduce  itself  alter- 
nately by  the  co-operation  of  two  beings  of  opposite  sex,  and  by  fissure 
or  budding  from  one  being  only  which  is  of  no  sex. 

These,  and  a  multitude  of  other  similar  facts,  complicate  enor- 
mously the  problems  of  life  and  its  developments,  whether  we  attempt  to 
solve  it  by  calling  in  aid  a  perpetual  series  of  innumerable  miraculous 
interpositions,  or  by  appealing  to  ordinary  known  laws  of  Nature. 

Is  the  latter  solution  possible,  and  can  the  organic  world  be 
reduced,  as  the  inorganic  world  has  .been  with  all  its  mysteries  and 
infinities  of  space,  time,  and  matter,  from  chaos  into  cosmos,  and  shown 
to  depend  on  permanent  and  harmonious  laws'?  Is  the  world  of  life, 
like  that  of  matter,  a  clock,  so  perfectly  constructed  from  the  first  that 
it  goes  without  winding  up  or  regulating?  or  is  it  a  clock  which  would 
never  have  started  going,  or  having  started  would  soon  cease  to  go  if 
the  hand  of  the  watchmaker  were  not  constantly  interfering  with  it? 
This  is  the  question,  which  the  celebrated  Darwinian  theory  attempts 
to  answer,  of  which  I  now  proceed  to  give  a  short  general  outline. 

The  varieties  among  domestic  animals  are  obvious  to  every  one. 
The  race-horse  is  a  very  different  creature  from  the  dray-horse;  the 
short-horned  ox  from  the  Guernsey  cow;  the  greyhound  from  the 
Skye  terrier.  How  has  this  come  to  pass?  Evidently  by  man's  inter- 
vention, causing  long-continued  selection  in  breeding  for  certain 
objects.  The  English  race-horse  is  the  product  of  mating  animals 
distinguished  for  speed  for  some  fifteen  or  twenty  generations.  The 
greyhound  is  a  similar  dog-product  by  breeding  for  a  longer  period 


LIFE.  .  51 

-with  the  same  object;  as  the  Skye  terrier  is  of  selection  in  order  to 
get  a  dog  which  can  follow  a  fox  into  a  cairn  of  rocks  and  fight  him 
when  he  gets  there.  In  all  these  cases  it  is  evident  that  the  final 
result  was  not  attained  at  once,  but  by  taking  advantage  of  small 
accidental  variations  and  accumulating  them  from  one  generation  to 
another  by  the  principle  of  heredity,  which  make  offspring  reproduce 
the  qualities  of  their  parents. 

The  most  precise  and  scientific  experiments  on  this  power  of 
Integrating,  or  summing  up,  a  progressive  series  of  differentials,  or 
minute  differences,  between  successive  generations,  are  those  conducted 
by  Darwin  on  pigeons.  He  has  shown  conclusively  that  all  the  races 
of  domestic  pigeons,  of  which  there  are  two  or  three  hundred,  are 
derived  from  one  common  ancestor,  the  wild  or  blue  rock  pigeon,  and 
that  the  pigeon-fancier  can  always  obtain  fresh  varieties  in  a  few 
generations  by  careful  interbreeding.  Of  the  existing  varieties  many 
now  differ  widely  from  one  another,  both  in  size,  appearance,  and  even 
in  anatomical  structure,  so  that  if  they  were  now  discovered  for  the 
first  time  in  a  fossil  state  or  in  a  new  country,  they  would  assuredly  be 
classed  by  naturalists  as  separate  species. 

This  is  the  work  of  man;  is  there  anything  similar  to  it  going  on 
in  Nature?  Yes,  says  Darwin,  there  is  a  tendeDcy  in  all  life,  and 
especially  in  the  lower  forms  of  life,  to  reproduce  itself  vastly  quicker 
than  the  supply  of  food  and  the  existence  of  other  life  can  allow,  and 
the  balance  of  existence  is  only  preserved  by  the  wholesale  waste  of 
individuals  in  what  may  be  called  the  "struggle  for  life."  In  this 
struggle,  which  goes  on  incessantly  and  on  the  largest  scale,  the 
slightest  advantage  must  tell  in  the  long  run,  and  on  the  average,  in 
selecting  the  few  who  are  to  survive,  and  such  slight  advantages  must 
tend  to  accumulate  from  one  generation  to  another  under  the  law  of 
heredity.  The  cumulative  power  of  selection  exercised  by  man  in  the 
breeding  of  races  is  therefore  necessarily  exercised  in  Nature  by  the 
struggle  for  life,  and  in  the  course  of  time,  by  the  cumulation  of 
advantages  originally  slight,  small  and  fluctuating  variations  are 
hardened  into  large  and  permanent  ones,  and  new  species  are  formed. 

Darwin  illustrates  this  principle  of  the  "  struggle  for  life  "  with  a 
vast  variety  of  instances,  showing  how  the  balance  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life  may  be  preserved  or  destroyed  in  the  most  unexpected 
:manner.  For  instance,  the  fertilization  of  red  clover  is  effected  by 
humble-bees,  and  depends  on  their  number;  the  number  of  bees  in  a 
given  district  depends  mainly  on  the  number  of  field-mice  which  destroy 
their  combs  and  nests;  the  number  of  mice  depends  on  the  number  of 
cats;  and  thus  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  carnivorous  animal  may 
decide  the  question  whether  a  particular  sort  of  flora  shall  prevail  over 
others  or  be  extirpated. 

The  countless  profusion  with  which  any  one  species,  unchecked  by 
its  natural  foes,  may  multiply  in  a  given  district,  is  illustrated  by  the 
potato  disease,  which  in  a  few  days  invades  whole  countries;  and  by 
the  rabbit  plague  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  where,  in  less  than 
twenty  years,  the  descendants  of  a  few  imported  pairs  have  rendered 
whole  provinces  useless  for  sheep  pasture,  and  stoats  are  now  being 
imported  to  restore  the  balance  of  life.  The  tendency  in  species  to 
produce  varieties  which  by  selection  may  become  exaggerated  and 
iixed,  is  illustrated  by  the  case  of  the  Ancon  herd  of  sheep.  A  ram 
lamb  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1791,  which  had  short  crooked  legs 


52        MODERN  SCIEXCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT, 

and  a  long  back  like  a  turnspit  dog.  Being  unable  to  jump  over 
fences  like  the  ordinary  sheep,  it  was  thought  to  possess  certain 
advantages  to  the  farmer,  and  the  breed  was  established  by  artificial 
selection  in  pairing  this  ram  with  its  descendants  wrho  possessed  the 
same  peculiarities.  The  introduction  of  the  Merino  superseded  the 
Ancon  by  giving  a  tame  sheep  not  given  to  jump  fences,  with  a  better 
fleece,  and  so  the  breed  was  not  continued,  but  it  is  certain  that  it 
might  have  been  established  as  a  permanent  variety  differing  from  the 
ordinary  sheep  as  much  as  the  turnspit  or  Skye  terrier  differs  from 
the  ordinary  dog.  The  tendency  of  Nature  to  variation  is  apparent 
in  the  fact  that  of  the  many  hundred  millions  of  human  beings  living 
on  the  earth,  no  two  are  precisely  alike,  and  varieties  often  appear,  as 
in  giants  and  dwarfs,  six-fingered  or  toed  children,  hairy  and  other ' 
families,  which  might  doubtless  be  fixed  and  perpetuated  by  artificial 
or  natural  selection,  until  they  became  strongly  marked  and  permanent. 

It  is  evident  that  if  the  theory  of  development  is  true  it  excludes 
the  old  theory  of  design,  or  rather,  it  thrusts  it  back  in  the  organic,  as 
it  has  been  thrust  back  in  the  inorganic  world,  to  the  first  atoms  or 
origins  which  were  made  so  perfect  as  to  carry  within  them  all  subse- 
quent phenomena  by  necessary  evolution.  Design  and  development 
lead  to  the  same  result,  that  of  producing  organs  adapted  for  the  work 
they  have  to  do,  but  they  lead  to  it  in  totally  different  ways.  Develop- 
ment works  from  the  less  to  the  more  perfect,  and  from  the  simpler  to 
the  more  complicated,  by  incessant  changes,  small  in  themselves  but 
constantly  accumulating  in  the  required  direction.  Design  supposes 
that  organisms  were  created  specially  on  a  predetermined  plan,  very 
much  as  the  sewing-machine  or  self-binding  reaper  were  constructed 
by  their  inventors. 

Until  quite  recently  all  adaptations  of  means  to  ends  were  con- 
sidered as  evidences  of  design.  A  series  of  treatises  wras  published 
some  thirty  years  ago,  for  prizes  left  by  a  late  Duke  of  Bridgewater,  to 
illustrate  this  theme,  among  which  one  by  Sir  Charles  Bell  on  the  Hand 
attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention.  It  was  shown  what  an  admirable 
machine  the  human  hand  is  for  the  various  purposes  for  which  it  is 
used,  and  the  inference  was  drawn  that  it  must  have  been  created  so 
by  a  designer  who  adapted  means  to  ends  in  much  the  same  way  as  is 
done  by  a  human  inventor.  But  more  complete  knowledge  has  dis- 
pelled this  idea,  and  shown  that  the  design,  if  there  be  any,  must  be 
placed  very  much  farther  back,  and  is  in  fact  involved  in  the  primitive 
germ  from  which  all  vertebrate  life  certainly,  and  probably  all  life^ 
animal  or  vegetable,  have  been  slowly  developed. 

The  human  hand  is  in  effect  the  last  stage  of  a  development  of  the 
vertebrate  type,  or  type  of  life  in  which  a  series  of  jointed  vertebrae 
form  a  backbone,  which  protects  a  spinal  cord  containing  the  nervous 
centres,  gives  points  of  attachment  for  the  muscles,  and  forms  an  axis 
of  support  for  the  looser  tissues.  Certain  of  these  vertebrae  throw  out 
bony  spines  or  rays;  at  first,  by  a  sort  of  simple  process  of  vegetable 
growth,  which  formed  the  fins  of  fishes;  then  some  of  these  rays  dropped 
off  and  others  coalesced  into  more  complex  forms,  which  made  the 
rudimentary  limbs  of  reptiles;  and  finally,  the  continued  process  of 
development  fashioned  them  into  the  more  perfect  limbs  of  birds  and 
mammals.  In  this  last  stage  a  vast  variety  of  combinations  was 
developed.  -Sometimes  the  bones  of  the  extremities  spread  out,  so  as 
to  form  long  fingers  sugporting  the  feathered  wings  of  birds  and  the 


LIFE.  53 

membraneous  wings  of  bats;  sometimes  they  coalesced  into  the  solid 
limbs  supporting  the  bodies  of  large  animals,  as  in  the  case  of  the  horse; 
and  finally,  at  the  end  of  the  series,  they  formed  that  marvellous  instru- 
ment, the  hand,  as  it  appears  in  the  allied  genera  of  monkeys,  apes, 
-and  man. 

Any  theory  of  secondary  design  and  special  miraculous  creation 
must  evidently  account  for  all  the  intermediate  forms  as  well  as  for 
the  final  result.  We  must  suppose  not  one  but  many  thousands  of 
special  creations,  at  a  vast  variety  of  places  and  over  a  vast  extent  of 
time;  we  must  take  into  account  not  the  successes  only,  but  the 
failures,  where  organs  appear  in  a  rudimentary  form  which  are  per- 
fectly useless,  or  in  some  cases  even  injurious,  to  the  creature  in 
which  they  are  found.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  the  so-called 
wingless  birds,  like  the  dodo  of  the  Mauritius,  and  the  apteryx  of 
New  Zealand,  which  are  found  in  oceanic  islands,  evolution  accounts 
readily  for  the  atrophy  or  want  of  development  of  organs  which  were 
not  wanted  where  the  birds  had  no  natural  enemies  and  found  their 
food  on  the  ground;  but  why  should  they  have  been  created  with 
rudimentary  wings,  useless  while  they  remained  isolated,  and  insuf- 
ficient to  prevent  their  extermination  as  soon  as  man,  or  any  other 
natural  enemy,  reached  the  islands  where  they  had  lived  secure? 

If  we  are  to  adopt  the  theory  of  design  and  special  creation,  we 
must  be  prepared  to  take  Burns'  poetical  fancy  as  a  scientific  truth, 
and  believe  that  Nature  had  to  try  its  "prentice  hand,"  and  grope  its 
way  through  repeated  trials  and  failures  from  the  less  to  the  more 
perfect.  Again,  the  theory  of  special  creation  must  account  not  only 
for  the  higher  organs  and  forms  of  life,  but  for  the  lower  forms  also. 
Are  the  bacteria,  amoebse,  and  other  forms  of  life  which  the  microscope 
shows  in  a  drop  of  water  all  instances  of  a  miraculous  creation?  And 
still  more  hard  to  believe,  is  this  the  origin  of  the  whole  parasitic 
world  of  life  which  is  attached  to  and  infests  each  its  own  peculiar 
form  of  higher  life?  Is  the  human  tape-worm  a  product  of  design,  or 
that  wonderful  parasite  the  trichinia,  which  oscillates  between  man 
and  the  pig,  being  capable  of  being  born  only  in  the  muscles  of  the 
-one,  and  of  living  only  in  the  intestines  of  the  other? 

These  are  the  sort  of  difficulties  which  have  led  the  scientific 
world,  I  may  say  universally,  to  abandon  the  idea  of  separate  special 
creations,  and  to  substitute  for  it  that  which  has  been  proved  to  be 
true  of  the  whole  inorganic  world  of  stars,  suns,  planets,  and  all  forms 
of  matter;  the  idea  of  an  original  creation  (whatever  creation  may 
mean  and  behind  which  we  cannot  go)  of  ultimate  atoms  or  germs,  so 
perfect  that  they  carried  within  them  all  the  phenomena  of  the  uni- 
verse by  a  necessary  process  of  evolution. 

This  is  the  idea  to  which  the  Darwinian  theory  leads  up,  by  show- 
ing natural  causes  in  operation  which  must  inevitably  tend  to  cause 
and  to  accumulate  slight  varieties,  until  they  become  large  in  amount 
and  permanent,  thus  developing  new  races  within  old  species,  new 
species  within  old  families,  new  families  within  old  types,  and  new  and 
complex  types  from  old  and  simple  ones. 

The  theory  is  up  to  a  certain  point  undoubtedly  true,  and  beyond 
that  point  in  the  highest  degree  probable,  but  scientific  caution 
obliges  us  to  add  that  it  is  still  to  a  considerable  extent  a  "theory," 
and  not  a  "law."  That  is,  it  is  not  like  the  law  of  gravity,  a  demon- 
strated certainty  throughout  the  whole  universe,  but  a  provisional  law 


54        MODERX  SCIEXCE  AXD  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

which  accounts  for  a  great  number  of  undoubted  facts,  and  supplies  a 
framework  into  which  all  other  similar  facts,  as  at  present  ascertained,, 
appear  to  fit  with  a  probability  not  approached  by  any  other  theory, 
and  which  is  enhanced  by  every  fresh  discovery  made,  and  by  the 
analogy  of  what  we  know  to  be  the  laws  which  regulate  the  whole 
inorganic  world. 

To  enable  us  to  talk  of  the  "Darwinian  law,"  and  not  of  the 
"Darwinian  theory,"  we  require  two  demonstrations: 

1.  That  living  matter  really  can  originate  from  inorganic  matter. 

2.  That  new  species  really  can  be  formed  from  previously  existing 
species. 

As  regards  the  first,  we  have  seen  that  the  efforts  of  science  have 
hitherto  failed  to  produce  an  instance  of  spontaneous  generation,  and 
all  we  can  say  is  that  it  is  probable  that  such  instances  have  occurred  in 
earlier  ages  of  our  planet,  under  conditions  of  light,  heat,  chemical 
action,  and  electricity,  different  from  anything  we  can  now  reproduce 
in  our  laboratories.  This,  however,  falls  short  of  demonstration,  and 
for  the  present  we  must  be  content  to  leave  the  orgin  of  life  as  one  of 
the  mysteries  not  yet  brought  within  the  domain  of  law. 

As  regards  the  second  point,  we  are  further  advanced  towards  the 
possibility  of  proof.  But  here  also  we  are  met  by  two  difficulties. 
If  we  appeal  to  historical  evidence,  we  are  met  by  the  fact  that 
a  much  greater  time  than  is  embraced  by  any  historical  record 
is  almost  necessarily  required  for  the  dying  out  of  any  old  species 
and  introduction  of  any  new  one,  by  natural  selection.  And  if  we 
appeal  to  fossil  remains  we  are  met  by  the  imperfection  of  the  geo- 
logical record.  As  to  this,  it  must  be  remembered  that  only  a  very 
small  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  has  been  explored,  and  of  this  a 
very  small  portion  consists  of  ancient  land  surfaces  or  fresh  water  for- 
mations, where  alone  we  can  expect  to  meet  with  traces  of  the  higher 
forms  of  animal  life.  And  even  these  have  been  so  imperfectly  explored,, 
that  where  we  now  meet  with  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  un- 
doubted human  remains  lying  almost  under  our  feet,  it  is  only  within 
the  last  thirty  years  that  their  existence  has  ever  been  suspected. 
Cuvier,  the  greatest  authority  of  the  last  generation,  laid  it  down  as  an. 
incontrovertible  fact  that  neither  men  nor  monkeys  had  existed  in  the 
fossil  state,  or  in  anything  more  ancient  than  the  most  superficial  and 
recent  deposits.  We  have  now  ui  least  twenty  specimens  of  fossil 
monkeys  from  one  locality  alone  of  the  Miocene  period,  that  of 
Pikermi,  near  Athens,  and  many  thousands  of  human  remains,  at  least 
into  the  Quaternary  period  and  contemporary  with  extinct  animals, 
if  not  earlier.  We  must  be  content,  therefore,  with  approximate  solu- 
tions pointing  up  to  but  not  absolutely  demonstrating  the  truth. 

What  is  a  species?  Speaking  generally  it  is  an  assemblage  of 
individuals  who  maintain  a  separate  family  type  by  breeding  freely 
among  themselves,  and  refusing  to  breed  with  other  species.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  this  represents  what,  at  the  first  view  and  for  a 
limited  range  of  time,  is  in  accordance  with  actual  facts.  The  animal 
and  vegetable  worlds  are  practically  mapped  out  into  distinct  species, 
and  do  not  present  the  mass  of  confusion  which  would  result  from 
indiscriminate  cross-breeding.  It  is  clear  also  that  this  state  of  things 
has  lasted  for  a  considerable  time,  for  the  paintings  on  Egyptian  tombs, 
and  monuments  carry  us  back  more  than  4,000  years,  and  show  us 
the  most  strongly  marked  varieties  of  the  human  race,  such  as  the 


LIFE.  55 

Semitic,  the  Egyptian,  and  the  Negro,  existing  just  as  they  do  at  the 
present  day.  They  show  us  also  such  extreme  varieties  of  the  dog 
species  as  the  greyhound  and  the  turnspit,  then  in  existence;  and  the 
skeletons  of  animals  such  as  the  ox,  cat,  and  crocodile,  which  have 
been  preserved  as  mummies,  show  no  appreciable  difference  from  those 
of  their  modern  descendants. 

When  we  come  to  look  closely,  however,  into  the  matter,  our 
faith  in  this  absolute  rule  of  the  entire  independence  of  species  is 
greatly  modified.  In  the  lower  grades  of  life  we  see  everywhere 
species  shading  off  into  one  another  by  insensible  gradations,  and 
every  extension  of  our  knowledge,  both  of  the  existing  animal,  vegeta- 
ble, and  microscopic  worlds,  and  of  those  of  past  geological  periods, 
multiplies  instances  of  intermediate  forms,  differing  from  one  another 
far  less  than  do  many  of  the  individual  varieties  of  recognized  species. 
In  the  case  of  sponges,  for  instance,  the  latest  conclusion  of  scientific 
research  is  this:  that  if  you  rely  on  minute  distinctions  as  constituting 
distinct  species,  there  are  at  least  300  species  of  one  family  of  sponges, 
while  if  you  disregard  slight  differences,  which  graduate  into  one 
another,  and  are  found  partly  in  one  and  partly  in  another  variety,  you 
must  designate  them  all  as  forming  only  one  species.  Even  in  higher 
grades,  as  species  are  multiplied,  it  becomes  more  and  more  difficult 
to  say  where  one  ends  and  the  other  begins.  Take  the  familiar 
instance  of  the  grouse  and  ptarmigan.  The  red  grouse  is  believed  to 
be  peculiar  to  the  British  Islands,  while  the  ptarmigan  is  a  very  widely 
spread  inhabitant  of  Arctic  regions  and  high  mountains.  Which  is 
more  probable — that  the  grouse  was  specially  created  in  the  British 
Islands,  apparently  for  the  final  cause  of  bringing  sessions  of  Parlia- 
ment to  wind  up  business  in  August,  or  that,  as  the  rigor  of  the 
Glacial  period  abated,  and  heather  began  to  grow,  certain  ptarmigan 
by  degrees  modified  their  habits  and  took  to  feeding  on  heather  tops 
instead  of  lichens,  and  by  so  doing  gradually  became  larger  birds  and 
assumed  the  color  best  adapted  for  protection  in  their  new  habitation  ? 
In  point  of  fact,  grouse  showing  traces  of  this  descent  in  smaller  size 
and  much  whiter  plumage  are  still  to  be  met  with.  It  would  be  easy 
to  multiply  instances,  but  this  consideration  seems  conclusive. 

If  we  reject  the  Darwinian  theory  and  adopt  that  of  independent 
species  descended  from  a  specially  created  ancestor  or  pair  of  ances- 
tors, we  are  driven  by  each  discovery  of  intermediate  or  slightly 
modified  forms,  into  the  assumption  of  more  and  more  special  acts 
of  creation,  until  the  number  breaks  down  under  its  own  weight,  and 
belief  becomes  impossible. 

For  instance,  in  the  Madeira  Islands  alone,  134  species  of  air- 
breathing  land-snails  have  been  discovered  by  naturalists,  of  which 
twenty- one  only  are  found  in  Africa  or  Europe,  and  113  are  peculiar  to 
this  small  group  of  islands,  where  they  are  mostly  confined  to  narrow 
districts  and  single  valleys.  Are  we  to  suppose  that  each  of  these  113 
species  was  separately  created?  Is  it  not  almost  certain  that  they  are 
the  modified  descendents  of  the  twenty-one  species  which  had  found 
their  way  there  in  a  former  geological  period,  when  Madeira  was  united 
to  Africa  and  Spain? 

There  remains  only  the  argument  from  the  fertility  of  species 
inter  se,  and  their  refusal  to  breed  with  other  species.  This  also,  when 
closely  examined,  appears  to  be  a  primd  facie  deduction,  rather  than 
an  absolute  law.  Different  species  do,  in  fact,  often  breed  together, 


56         MODERX  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

as  is  seen  in  the  familiar  instance  of  the  horse  and  ass.  It  is  true  that 
in  this  case  the  mule  is  sterile  and  no  new  race  is  established.  But 
this  rule  is  not  universal,  and  quite  recently  one  new  hybrid  race,  that 
of  the  leporine,  or  hare-rabbit,  has  been  created,  which  is  perfectly 
fertile.  The  progeny  of  dog  and  wolf  has  also  been  proved  to  be  per- 
fectly fertile  during  the  four  generations  for  which  the  experiment  was 
continued.  In  the  case  of  cultivated  plants  and  domestic  animals, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  new  races,  which  breed  true  and  are 
perfectly  fertile,  have  been  created  within  recent  times  from  distinct 
wild  species.  The  Esquimaux  dog  is  so  like  the  Arctic  wolf  that  there 
can  be  little  doubt  he  is  either  a  direct  descendant,  or  that  both  are 
descendants  from  a  common  stock.  The  same  is  true  of  the  jackal  and 
some  breeds  of  dogs  in  the  East  and  Africa,  and  other  races  of  dogs 
are  closely  akin  to  foxes.  But  all  dogs  breed  freely  together,-  and  can 
with  difficulty  be  mated  with  the  wild  species  which  they  so  closely 
resemble.  The  modem  Swiss  cattle  are  pronounced  by  Rutimeyer  to 
show  undoubted  marks  of  descent  from  three  distinct  species  of  fossil 
oxen,  the  Bos  primigenius,  .Bos  longifrons,  and  JBos  frontosus. 

There  is  now  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  in  Regent's  Park  a 
hybrid  cow,  whose  sire  was  an  American  bison  and  its  mother  a  hybrid 
between  a  zebu  and  a  gayal.  This  animal  is  perfectly  fertile,  and  has 
bred  again  to  the  bison;  but  what  is  singular  is,  that  this  hybrid 
resembles  much  more  an  ordinary  domestic  English  cow  than  it  does 
any  of  its  progenitors.  It  is  totally  unlike  the  bison,  both  in  appear- 
ance and  disposition,  and,  except  in  having  a  projecting  ridge  over  the 
withers,  it  might  be  mistaken  for  a  coarse,  bony,  common  cow.  If  a 
hybrid  bull  had  been  born  of  the  same  type,  and  mated  with  this  hybrid 
cow,  there  is  little  doubt  that  a  new  race  might  have  been  established, 
extremely  different  from  its  ancestors. 

In  fact,  nearly  all  the  domesticated  animals  have  the  essential 
characters  of  new  races.  We  cannot  point  to  wild  progenitors  existing 
in  any  part  of  the  world  from  which  they  are  descended,  and  when  they 
run  wild  they  do  not  revert  to  any  common  ancestral  form. 

In  the  vegetable  world  instances  of  fertile  hybrids  are  still  more 
abundant,  and  the  introduction  and  establishment  of  new  varieties  is  a 
matter  of  every-day  occurrence. 

Now,  whatever  artificial  selection  can  do  in  a  short  time,  natural 
selection  can  certainly  do  in  a  longer  time,  and  nothing  short  of 
abs9lute  proof  of  the  impossibility  of  species  coming  into  existence  by 
natural  laws  should  induce  us  to  fall  back  on  the  supernatural  theory, 
with  all  its  enormous  difficulties  of  an  innumerable  multitude  of  special 
creations,  most  of  them  obviously  imperfect  and  tentative — or  rather, 
useless  and  senseless  on  any  supposition  except  that  of  a  necessary 
and  progressive  evolution.  In  fact,  if  it  were  not  for  its  bearing  on 
the  nature  and  origin  of  man,  few  would  be  found  to  maintain  the 
theory  of  miraculous  creations,  or  to  doubt  that  the  world  of  life  is 
regulated  by  fixed  laws  as  well  as  the  world  of  matter.  But  whatever 
touches  man  touches  us  closely,  and  brings  into  play  a  host  of  cherished 
aspirations  and  beliefs,  which  are  too  powerful  to  be  displaced  readily 
by  calm,  scientific  reasoning.  Shall  man,  who,  we  are  told,  was  created 
in  God's  image  and  only  "  a  little  lower  than  the  angels,"  be  degraded 
into  relationship  with  the  brutes,  and  shown  to  be  only  the  last 
development  of  an  animal  type  which,  in  the  case  of  apes  and  monkeys, 
approaches  singularly  near  to  him  in  physical  structure"?  Are  the 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  57 

saints  and  heroes  whom  we  revere,  and  the  beautiful  women  whom 
we  admire,  descended,  not  from  an  all-glorious  Adam  and  all-lovely 
Eve,  as  portrayed  in  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  but  from  Palaeolithic 
savages,  more  rude  and  bestial  than  the  lowest  tribe  of  Bushmen  or 
Australians?  Is  the  account  of  man's  creation  and  fall  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  as  pure  a  myth  as  that  of  Noah's  ark,  or  of  Deucalion  and 
Pyrrha? 

The  only  answer  to  these  questions  is  that  truth  is  truth,  and 
fact  is  fact,  and  that  it  is  always  better  to  act  and  to  believe  in  con- 
formity with  truth  and  fact,  than  to  indulge  in  illusions.  There  are 
many  things  in  Nature  which  jar  on  our  feelings  and  seem  harsh  and 
disagreeable,  but  yet  are  hard  facts,  which  we  have  to  recognize  and 
make  the  best  of.  Childhood  does  not  pass  into  manhood  without 
exchanging  much  that  is  innocent  and  attractive  for  much  that  is 
stern  and  prosaic.  Death,  with  its  prodigal  waste  of  immature  life, 
its  sudden  extinction  of  mature  life  in  the  plenitude  of  its  powers, 
its  heart-rending  separations  from  loved  objects,  is  a  most  disagreeable 
fact.  But  it  would  not  improve  matters  to  keep  grown-up  lads  in 
nurseries  for  fear  of  their  meeting  with  accidents,  or  becoming  hard- 
ened by  contact  with  the  world.  Progress,  not  happiness,  is  the  law 
of  the  world;  and  to  improve  himself  and  others  by  constant  struggles 
upwards  is  the  true  destiny  of  man. 

In  working  out  this  destiny  the  fearless  recognition  of  truth  is 
essential.  Facts  are  the  spokes  of  the  ladder  by  which  we  climb  from 
earth  to  heaven,  and  any  individual,  nation,  or  religion,  which,  from 
laziness  or  prejudice,  refuses  to  recognize  fresh  facts,  has  ceased  to 
climb  and  will  end  by  falling  asleep  and  dropping  to  a  lower  level. 

"  Prove  everything,  hold  fast  that  which  is  true,"  is  the  maxim 
which  has  raised  mankind  from  savagery  to  civilization,  and  which  we 
must  be  prepared  to  act  upon  at  all  hazards  and  at  all  sacrifices,  if  we 
wish  to  retain  that  civilization  unimpaired  and  to  extend  it  further. 


CHAPTER  V. 
ANTIQUITY   OF  MAN. 

REAT  as  the  effect  has  been  of  the  wonderful  discoveries  of 
modern  science  of  which  I  have  attempted  to  give  a  general 
view  in  the  preceding  chapters,  there  remains  one  which  has  had  the 
greatest  effect  of  all  in  changing  the  whole  current  of  moden  thought, 
viz ,  the  discovery  of  the  enormous  antiquity  of  man  upon  earth,  and 
his  slow  progress  upwards  from  the  rudest  savagery  to  intelligence, 
morality,  and  civilization.  It  is  needless  to  point  out  in  what  flagrant 
and  direct  opposition  this  stands  to  the  theory  that  man  is  of  recent 
miraculous  creation,  and  that  he  was  originally  endowed  with  a  glori- 
ous nature  and  high  faculties,  which  were  partially  forfeited  by  an 
act  of  disobedience.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to  understand  clearly 
the  evidence  upon  which  a  conclusion  rests,  so  startling  and  unex- 
pected as  that  which  traces  the  origin  of  man  back  into  the  remote 
periods  of  geological  time. 

It  had  been  long  known  that  a  stone  period  preceded  the  use  of 
metals.  Flint  arrow-heads,  stone  axes,  knives,  and  chisels,  rude 


58         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

pottery,  and  other  human  remains  lie  scattered  almost  everywhere,  on 
or  near  the  existing-  surface,  and  are  found  in  the  sepulchral  mounds 
and  monuments  which  abound  in  all  countries  until  they  are  destroyed 
by  the  progress  of  agriculture.  These  are  certainly  ancient,  for  their 
origin  was  so  completely  forgotten  that  the  stone  hatchets  or  celts 
(from  the  Latin  celtis,  or  chisel)  were  universally  believed  to  be 
thunderbolts  which  had  fallen  from  heaven.  But  there  was  no  proof 
that  they  were  very  ancient,  they  were  always  found  at  or  near  the 
present  surface,  and  if  animal  remains  were  associated  with  them,  they 
were  those  of  the  dog,  ox,  sheep,  red  deer,  and  other  wild  and  domestic 
species  now  found  in  the  same  district.  Historical  record  was  not 
supposed  to  extend  beyond  the  4,000  or  5,000  years  assigned  to  it  by 
Bible  chronology,  and  it  was  thought  that  this  might  be  sufficient  to 
account  for  all  the  changes  which  had  occurred  since  man  first  became 
an  inhabitant  of  the  earth.  Above  all,  the  negative  evidence  was 
relied  on,  that  geologists  had  explored  far  and  wide,  and  although, 
they  had  found  fossil  remains  which  enabled  them  to  restore  the 
characteristic  fauna  of  so  many  different  formations,  they  had  found 
no  trace  of  man  or  his  works  anywhere  below  the  present  surface. 
This  seemed  so  conclusive  that  Cuvier,  the  greatest  authority  of  the 
day,  pronounced  an  emphatic  verdict  that  man  had  not  existed  contem- 
poraneously with  any  of  the  extinct  animals,  and  probably  not  for 
more  than  5,000  or  6,000  years.  Here,  then,  appeared  to  be  an  edifice 
based  on  scientific  fact,  in  which  geologists  and  theologians  could 
dwell  together  comfortably,  and  the  weight  of  their  united  authority 
was  sufficient  t©  silence  all  objections,  and  ignore  or  explain  away  the 
instances  which  occasionally  cropped  up,  of  human  remains  found  in 
situations  implying  greater  antiquity. 

Suddenly,  I  may  almost  say  in  a  single  day,  this  edifice  collapsed 
like  a  house  of  cards,  and  the  fact  became  apparent  that  the  duration 
of  human  life  on  the  earth  must  be  measured  by  periods  of  tens,  if  not 
of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years. 

It  happened  thus:  A  retired  French  physician,  Monsieur  Boucher 
de  Perthes,  residing  at  Abbeville,  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme,  had  a 
hobby  for  antiquarianism  as  decided  as  that  of  Monkbarns  himself. 
Abbeville  afforded  him  a  capital  collecting-ground  for  the  indulgence 
of  his  tastes,  as  the  sluggish  Somme  flows  through  a  series  of  peat 
mosses,  which  are  extensively  worked  for  fuel,  and  afford  many  remains 
of  the  Gallo-Roman  and  pre-Roman  or  Celtic  period.  Higher  up,  on 
the  slopes  of  the  low  hills  which  bound  the  wide  valley,  are  numerous 
beds  of  gravel,  sand,  and  brick-earth,  which  are  also  extensively  worked 
for  road  and  building  materials.  In  these  pits  remains  of  the  mam- 
moth, rhinoceros,  and  other  extinct  animals  are  frequently  found,  and 
the  workmen  had  noticed  occasionally  certain  curiously-shaped  flints, 
to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  "langues  du  chat,"  or  cats'  tongues. 
Some  of  these  were  taken  to  Monsieur  Boucher  de  Perthes  as  curiosi- 
ties for  his  museum,  and  he  at  once  recognized  them  as  showing  marks 
of  human  workmanship.  This  put  him  on  the  trace,  and  in  the  year 
1841  he  himself  discovered,  in  situ,  in  a  seam  of  sand  containing  remains 
of  the  mammoth,  a  flint  rudely  but  unmistakably  fashioned  by  human 
hands  into  a  cutting  instrument.  During  the  next  few  years  a  large 
quantity  of  gravel  was  removed  to  form  the  Champ  de  Mars  at  Abbe- 
ville, and  many  of  these  celts  or  hatchets  were  found.  In  1847,  M. 
Boucher  de  Perthes  published  his  "Antiquites  Celtiques  et  Antedilu- 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 


59 


viennes,"  giving1  an  account  of  these  discoveries,but  no  one  would  listen 
to  him.  The  united  authority  of  theologians  and  geologists  opposed 
an  infallible  veto  on  the  reception  of  such  ideas,  and  it  must  be  admitted 
that  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes  himself  did  his  best  to  discredit  his  own 
discoveries  by  associating  them  with  visionary  speculations  about  suc- 
cessive deluges  and  creations  of  pre-Adamite  men.  At  length  Dr 
Falconer,  the  well-known  palaeontologist,  who  had  brought  to  light  so 
many  wonderful  fossil  remains 'from  the  Sewalik  hills  in  India,  happened 
to  be  passing  through  Abbeville  and  visited  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes' 
collection.  He  was  so  much  struck  by  what  he  saw  that  on  arriving  in. 
London  he  spoke  to  Mr.  Prestwich,  the  first  living  authority  on  the 
tertiary  and  quaternary  strata,  and  Mr.  Evans,  whose  authority  was 


ft  k 

*m^' 

w  If  fie 

\^J''W.m 


FLINT  HACHE,  FLINT  HACHE, 

From  Moulin  Quignon,  Abbeville.  From  St.  Acheul,  Valley  of  the  Somme.. 

(Half  the  actual  size. )  (Half  the  actual  size.) 

(From  Lubbock's  "  Prehistoric  Times.") 

equally  great  on  everything  relating  to  the  stone  implements  found  in. 
such  numbers  in  the  more  recent  or  Neolithic  period.  He  urged  them, 
to  go  to  Abbeville  and  examine  for  themselves  whether  there  was  any- 
thing in  these- alleged  discoveries.  They  did  so,  and  the  result  was  that 
on  their  return  to  England  Mr.  Prestwich  read  a  paper  to  the  Royal 
Society  on  the  19th  May,  1859,  which  conclusively  and  forever  estab- 
lished the  fact  that  flint  implement's  of  unmistakable  human  workman- 
ship had  been  found,  associated  with  the  remains  of  extinct  species,  in 
beds  of  the  Quaternary  period  deposited  at  a  time  when  the  Somme 
ran  at  a  level  more  than  100  feet  higher  than  at  present,  and  was  only- 
beginning  to  excavate  its  valley. 


60 


MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT, 


The  spell  once  broken  evidence  poured  in  from  all  quarters,  and 
although  twenty-five  years  only  have  elapsed  since  Mr.  Prestwich's 
paper  was  read,  the  number  of  stone  and  other  implements  worked  by 
man,  deposited  in  museums,  is  already  counted  by  tens  of  thousands, 

and  they  have  been  found  from  Dev- 
onshire to  India,  in  Trance,  England, 
Germany,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  Northern 
Africa,  Palestine,  and  Hindostan,  and 
in  fact  wherever  they  have  been  looked 
for,  except  in  northern  countries  which 
were  buried  under  ice  during  the  Glacial 
period.  Some  idea  of  the  immense 
number  of  these  rude  implements  may 
be  formed  from  the  fact  that  the  valley 
system  of  one  small  river,  the  Little 
Ouse,  which  rises  near  Thetford  and 
flows  into  the  Wash  after  a  course  of 
twenty-five  miles,  has  within  little  more 
than  ten  years  yielded  about  7,000 
specimens. 

They  have  been  found  in  great 
abundance  in  the  valley  gravels  of  the 
Thames,  Ouse,  Wiltshire  Avon,  and  in 
fact  in  all  the  river  gravels  and  'brick- 
earths  of  the  south  and  south-east  of 
England;  and  in  those  of  the  Somme, 
Oise,  Seine,  Loire,  and  all  the  principal 
river  systems  of  France;  and  in  less 
numbers,  probably  because  they  have 
been  less  looked  for,  in  similar  situations 
over  an  area  extending  from  Central 
and  Southern  Europe  to  Madras  and 
China.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  about 
these  river-drift  implements  that  they 
are  all  nearly  of  the  same  type  and  found 
(From  Lubbock's"  Prehistoric  Times.")  under  similar  circumstances,  that  is  to 
say,  in  the  gravels,  sands,  brick-earths,  and  fine  silt  or  loess  deposited 
by  fivers  which  have  either  ceased  to  run,  or  which  ran  at  levels 
higher  than  their  present  ones  and  were  only  beginning  to  excavate 
their  present  valleys.  Also  they  are  always  found  in  association  with 
remains  of  what  is  known  as  the  quaternary,  as  distinguished  from 
the  recent  or  existing  fauna,  and  which  is  characterized  by  the  mam- 
moth, the  thick-nosed  rhinoceros,  and  other  well-known  types  of 
extinct  animals.  'J?he  general  character  of  these  implements  is  very 
rude,  implying  a  social  condition  at  least  as  low  as  that  of  the  Australian 
savages  of  the  present  day.  They  consist  mainly  of  the  flake;  the 
chopper  or  pebble,  roughly  chipped  to  an  edge  on  one  side;  the 
scraper,  used  probably  for  preparing  skins;  pointed  flints  used  for 
boring,  and  by  far  the  most  abundant  and  characteristic  of  all,  the 
hdche  or  celt,  a  sharp  or  oval  implement,  roughly  chipped  from  flint 
or,  in  its  absence,  from  any  of  the  hard  stones  of  the  district,  such  as 
chert  or  quartzite,  and  intended  to  be  held  in  the  hand  and  used 
"without  any  haft  or  handle. 

These  hdches  are  evidently  the  first  rude  type  of  human  tools, 


FLINT  PACHE. 

From  HOXDG,  Suffolk. 

(Half  the  actual  size.) 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 


61 


from  which  the  later  forms  of  the  axe,  adze,  chisel,  wedge,  etc.,  have 
been  derived  by  a  very  slow  and  lengthened  process  of  evolution.  They 
differ,  however,  in  many  essential  respects,  from  the  more  perfect 
stone  celts  of  later  periods  and  of  modern  savages.  The  chipping  is 
•very  rude,  they  are  never  ground  or  polished,  the  pointed  end  is  that 
intended  for  use,  the  butt-end  being  left  blunt,  showing  that  the 
hdche  was  not  haf  ted  but  held  in  the  hand;  while 
the  converse  is  always  the  case  with  the  finely- 
chipped  or  polished  stone  celts  and  hatchets  of 
the  Neolithic  period,  which,  in  its  later  stages,  are 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  similar  to  modern 
implements,  only  made  of  stone  instead  of  metal. 
But  these  Palaeolithic  hdches  are  only  one  step  in 
advance  of  the  rude  natural  stone  which  an  intelli- 
gent orang  or  chimpanzee  might  pick  up  to  crack 
a  cocoa-nut  with,  or  to  grub  up  a  root  from  the 
earth,  or  an  insect  from  a  rotten  tree. 

At  the  same  time  there  is  not  the  remotest 
doubt  as  to  their  being  the  work  of  human  hands. 
"When  placed  side  by  side  with  the  rudest  forms 

of  stone  hatchets  actually  used  by  the  Australian  _ 

-,     ,-,  ...     T/Y.     11    L     -i  L     L          j-£c      POLISHED  STONE  AXE. 

and  other  savages,  it  is  difficult  to  detect  any  diner-  Neolithic. 

ence.     If  placed  in  an  ascending  series,  from  the    (Half  the  actual*  size.) 
oldest  and  rudest,  to  the  finely-finished  axes  and       (From  Lubbock'a 
arrow-heads  of  the  period  immediately  preceding    "^historic  Times.") 
the  use  of  metal,  the  progress  may  be  clearly  traced  by  insensible 
gradations.     The  blows  given  to  bring  the  block  to  the  desired  shape 


FLINT  ADZE, 
From  Danish  Kitchen-middens. 

(From  Lubbock's  "  Prehistoric  Times.") 


MODEBN  STONE  ADZE, 
New  Zealand. 


by  intentional  chipping  have  left  distinct  marks;  and  archaeologists 
have  succeeded,  with  a  little  practice,  in  fashioning  similar  implements 
from  modern  flints.  In  fact,  forgeries  nave  been  made  by  workmen 
in  localities  where  collectors  were  eager  and  credulous,  though  for- 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    LANCE. 


PALAEOLITHIC. 
Mammoth  Period. 


PALAEOLITHIC. 
Mammotb  Period.. 


PALAEOLITHIC, 
Period, 


PALEOLITHIC. 
Reindeer  Period., 


EARLY  N  EOLITHIC.  LATTC 

(From  Lubbock's  "  Prehistoric  T  naes." 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  63 

innately  such  forgeries  are  easily  distinguished  from  genuine  antiques 
"by  the  different  appearance  of  the  old  and  recent  fractures,  and  other 
signs  which  make  it  almost  impossible  to  deceive  an  experienced  eye. 
The  conclusion,  therefore,  of  one  of  our  best  archaeologists  may  be 
safely  accepted,  that  it  is  as  impossible  to  doubt  that  these  rude  stone 
flakes  and  hatchets  are  works  of  human  art,  as  it  would  be  if  we  had 
found  clasp-knives  and  carpenters'  adzes. 

The  remains  of  human  skeletons  are,  as  might  be  expected,  very 
rare  in  these  river  drifts,  which  have  been  formed  under  conditions 
where  the  preservation  of  such  remains  would  be  very  unlikely.  In 
fact,  as  Sir  John  Lubbock  points  out,  the  bones  found  in  the  river 
gravels  are  almost  invariably  those  of  animals  larger  than  man,  such  as 
the  mammoth  and  rhinoceros.  Still  a  few  human  bones  have  been 
found,  sufficient  to  show  that  these  river-drift  men  were  probably  a 
dolichocephalic  or  long  and  narrow-headed  race,  with  prominent  jaws, 
massive  bones,  and  great  muscular  strength,  but  still,  although  rude 
and  savage,  of  an  essentially  human  type,  and  going  a  very  little  way 
towards  bridging  over  the  gap  between  the  savage  and  the  ape. 

A  more  complete  view,  however,  of  the  conditions  of  human  life  at 
these  remote  periods  is  afforded  by  the  evidence  given  by  caves,  where 
naturally  the  remains  of  man  are  much  more  abundant  and  much 
better  preserved.  Before  entering,  however,  on  the  examination  of 
this  class  of  evidence,  it  may  be  well  to  give  an  instance  which  may 
help  to  familiarize  the  imagination  with  the  vast  periods  of  time  which 
must  have  elapsed  since  Palaeolithic  man  left  these  rude  implements 
within  reach  of  river  floods. 

Among  the  gravels  in  which  Palaeolithic  hdches  have  been  found, 
are  some  which  cap  the  cliff  at  Bournemouth  at  a  height  of  about  130 
feet  above  the  sea.  This  gravel  can  be  traced  in  a  gradual  fall  from 
west  to  east,  along  the  Hampshire  coast  and  the  shores  of  the  Solent 
to  beyond  Spithead,  and  was  evidently  deposited  by  a  river  which 
carried  the  drainage  of  the  Dorsetshire  and  Hampshire  downs  into  the 
sea  to  the  eastward,  and  of  which  the  present  Avon,  Test,  and  Itchen 
were  tributaries.  But  for  such  a  river  to  run  in  such  a  course  the 
whole  of  Poole  and  Christ-church  bays  must  have  been  dry  land,  and 
the  range  of  chalk  downs  now  broken  through  at  the  Needles  must 
have  been  continuous.  To  borrow  the  words  Evans  in  the  "  Ancient 
Stone  Implements,"  "  Who,  standing  on  the  edge  of  the  lofty  cliff  at 
Bournemouth,  and  gazing  over  the  wide  expanse  of  waters  between  the 
present  shore  and  a  line  connecting  the  Needles  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  Ballard  Down  Foreland  on  the  other,  can  fully  comprehend  how 
immensely  remote  was  the  epoch  when  what  is  now  that  vast  bay  was 
high  and  dry  land,  and  a  long  range  of  chalk  downs,  600  feet  above 
the  sea,  bounded  the  horizon  on  the  south?  And  yet  this  must  have 
Leen  the  sight  that  met  the  eyes  of  those  primeval  men  who  frequented 
the  banks  of  that  ancient  river  which  buried  their  handiworks  in 
gravels  that  now  cap  the  cliffs,  and  of  the  course  of  which  so  strange 
but  indubitable  a  memorial  subsists  in  what  has  now  become  the  Solent 
Sea." 

Any  attempt  to  assign  a  more  precise  date  than  the  vague  one 
of  immense  antiquity  to  these  early  traces  of  primeval  man,  had  better 
be  postponed  until  we  have  examined  the  more  detailed  and  extensive 
body  of  evidence  which  has  been  afforded  by  the  exploration  of  caves, 
to  which  the  great  discovery  at  Abbeville  at  once  gave  an  immense 


64         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

impulse,  and  which  has  since  been  prosecuted  in  England,  France, 
Belguim,  and  Germany,  with  the  greatest  ardor  and  success. 

The  caves  in  which  fossil  remains  are  found  occur  principally  in 
limestone  districts.  They  are  due  to  the  property  which  water 
possesses,  when  charged  with  a  small  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  of 
dissolving  lime.  Rain  falling  on  the  earth's  surface  takes  up  carbonic 
acid  from  contract  with  vegetable  matter,  and  a  portion  of  it  finds  its 
way  through  cracks  and  crevices  in  the  subjacent  rock  to  lower  levels, 
where  it  comes  out  in  springs  of  hard  water  charged  with  carbonate 
of  lime  from  the  rock  which  it  has  dissolved.  It  has  been  calculated 
that  the  average  rainfall  on  a  square  mile  of  chalk  thus  carries  away 
about  140  tons  of  solid  matter  in  a  year.  In  this  way  underground 
channels  are  formed,  some  of  which  become  large  enough  to  admit 
of  streams  flowing  through  them,  and  even  livers,  as  is  seen  in  the 
limestone  district  of  Carinthia,  where  considerable  rivers  are  swallowed 
up  and  run  for  miles  beneath  the  surface.  In  this  way  caverns  are 
formed,  or  sometimes  a  series  of  caverns,  which  represent  the  pools  of 
the  rivers  which  formerly  flowed  through  them.  Accumulations  were 
formed  at  the  bottom  of  these  pools  of  whatever  may  have  been  brought 
down  by  the  stream,  and  when,  owing  to  changes  in  level  or  denuda- 
tion of  the  gathering  grounds,  the  rivers  ceased  to  flow  in  the  old  chan- 
nel, these  pools  became  dry  and  were  converted  into  caves,  in  which 
wild  beasts  and  man  found  shelter  and  left  their  remains.  The  debris 
thus  formed  accumulated  with  a  mixture  of  blocks  which  fell  from  the 
roof,  and  of  red  loamy  earth  consisting  of  the  residue  of  the  limestone 
rock  insoluble  in  water,  and  of  dust  and  mud  brought  in  by  winds  and 
floods,  and  occasionally  interstratified  by  beds  of  stalagmite,  composed 
of  thin  films  of  crystalline  carbonate  of  lime,  deposited  drop  by  drop  by 
drippings  through  the  rock  forming  the  roof  of  the  cave.  These  drip- 
pings form  what  are  called  stalactites,  which  hang  like  pendent  icicles 
from  the  roof  of  caves,  and  as  the  drip  falls  from  these  it  forms  a  cor- 
responding deposit,  known  as  stalagmite,  on  the  floor  below.  The 
formation  of  this  deposit  is  necessarily  extremely  slow,  and  it  only  goes 
on  when  the  drops  of  water  charged  with  a  minute  excess  of  carbonate 
of  lime  come  in  contact  with  the  air;  so  that  whenever  the  floor  of  the 
cave  was  under  water  no  stalagmite  could  be  formed.  The  alternations, 
therefore,  of  deposits  of  stalagmite  represent  alternations  of  long- 
periods  during  which  the  cave  was  generally  dry  or  generally  flooded. 
During  the  dry  periods,  when  the  cave  happened  to  be  inhabited,  the 
treadings  on  the  floor  would  prevent  the  accumulation  of  an  unbroken 
deposit  of  pure  stalagmite,  and  the  crystalline  matter  would  be  employed 
in  forming  a  solid  cement  of  the  various  debris  into  what  is  known  a» 
a  breccia. 

Another  class  of  caves,  or  rock-shelters,  has  been  formed  along  the 
sides  of  valleys  bounded  by  cliffs,  where  the  stratification  is  horizontal 
or  nearly  so;  but  the  different  beds  vary  much  in  hardness  and  per- 
meability to  water.  The  softer  strata  weather  away  more  rapidly  than 
the  others,  and  thus  form  shallow  caves  or  deep  recesses  in  the  face  of 
the  cliffs,  with  a  floor  of  hard  rock  below  and  a  roof  of  hard  rock  above, 
which  afford  dry  and  commodious  shelters  for  any  sort  of  animal,  includ- 
ing man.  In  other  respects  they  resemble  the  first  class  of  caves  in 
having  their  contents  cemented  into  a  breccia  by  the  dripping  of  water 
charged  with  carbonate  of  lime  from  the  roof,  and,  if  the  cave  hap- 
pened to  be  deserted  for  a  long  period,  this  deposit  would  in  the  same 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  65 

way  form  a  bed  of  stalagmite  and  seal  up  securely  everything  below  it. 
In  some  cases,  also,  the  roof  would  fall  in,  and  thus  preserve  every- 
thing previously  existing  in  the  cave  for  the  investigation  of  future 
geologists. 

With  these  general  remarks  readers  will  be  able  to  understand 
the  evidence  afforded  by  the  remains  of  man  found  in  caverns.  I  will 
begin  by  taking  as  a  typical  case  that  of  Kent's  Cavern,  near  Torquay, 
because  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  and  best  known,  and  all  the  facts 
concerning  it  have  been  verified  by  explorations  carefully  conducted 
by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  British  Association  in  1864,  arid 
which  comprised  the  names  of  the  most  eminent  authorities  in  geology 
and  palaeontology,  including  those  of  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  Sir  John 
Lubbock,  Mr.  Evans,  Mr.  Boyd  Dawkins,  Mr.  Pengelley,  and  others. 

The  cave  is  about  a  mile  east  from  Torquay  harbor,  and  runs 
into  a  hill  of  Devonian  limestone  in  a  winding  course,  expanding  into 
large  chambers  connected  by  narrow  passages.  The  fallowing  is  the 
series  of  deposits  in  descending  order  in  the  large  chamber  near  the 
entrance: 

1.  Large  blocks  of  limestone  which  have  fallen  from  the  roof. 

2.  A  layer  of  black,  muddy  mould,  three  inches  to   twelve  inches 

thick. 

3.  Stalagmite  one  foot  to  three  feet  thick. 

4.  Eed  cave-earth  with  angular  fragments  of  limestone  of  variable 

thickness,1  but  in  places  five  to  six  feet  thick. 

In  the  black  earth  above  the  stalagmite  were  found  a  number  of 
relics  of  the  Neolithic  or  polished  stone  period,  with  a  few  articles  of 
bronze  and  pottery,  some  of  which  appear  to  be  of  a  date  as  late  as 
that  of  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain.  Associated  with  these  are 
bones  of  ox,  sheep,  goat,  pig,  and  other  ordinary  forms  of  existing 
species,  and  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  any  older  fauna,  or  of  any  of 
the  ruder  forms  of  Palaeolithic  implements.  When  we  get  below  the 
stalagmite  into  the  underlying  cave-earth,  the  case  is  entirely  reversed. 
Not  a  single  specimen  of  polished  or  finely- wrought  stone,  or  of 
pottery,  is  to  be  found;  a  vast  number  of  celts  or  hdches,  scrapers, 
knives,  hammer  stones,  and  other  stone  implements,  are  met  with, 
which  are  all  of  the  rude  Palaeolithic  type  found  in  the  river  drifts, 
with  a  few  bone  implements  such  as  harpoon-heads,  a  pin,  an  awl,  and 
a  needle,  like  those  frequently  met  with  in  the  caves  of  France  and 
Belgium.  Associated  with  these  are  a  vast  number  of  bones  and 
teeth,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  old  quaternary  fauna,  of  which  many 
species  have  become  extinct  and  others  have  migrated  to  distant 
latitudes. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  mammalian  remains  which  have  been 
found  in  this  cave-earth  below  the  stalagmite: 

ABUNDANT. 

The  Cave  Lion,  a  large  extinct  species  of  lion. 

Cave  Hyaena,  hyaena. 

Cave  Bear,  bear. 

Grizzly  Bear. 

Mammoth  (Elephas  primigenius). 

Rhinoceros  (Tichorinus),  woolly  or  thick-nosed  extinct  species. 

Horse. 

Bison. 

Irish  Elk. 


66         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

Red  Deer. 
Reindeer. 

SCARCE. 
Wolf. 
Fox. 
Glutton. 
Brown  Bear. 
Urus. 
Hare. 

Lagomnys,  tailless  Arctic  hare. 
Water  Vole. 
Field  Vole. 
Bank  Vole. 
Beaver. 
And  one  specimen  of  the  Machairodus,  or  Great  Sabre-toothed  Tiger, 

which  is  one  of  the  characteristic  species  of  the  upper  Miocene  and 

Pliocene  formations. 

These  constitute  a  fauna  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Pleistocene, 
Quaternary,  or  Palaeolithic  period,  and  essentially  different  from  that 
of  the  prehistoric  or  Neolithic  period,  which  is  practically  the  same  as 
that  now  existing.  Wherever  remains  of  the  mammoth,  woolly  rhi- 
noceros, and  cave  bear  are  found,  Palaeolithic  implements  may  be 
expected,  and  conversely.  In  fact  Palaeolithic  man  is  as  essentially 
part  of  the  characteristic  fauna  of  the  Quaternary  period,  as  the 
Palaeotherium  is  of  the  Eocene,  or  the  Deinotherium  and  Hipparion  of 
the  Miocene. 

A  large  number  of  other  caves  have  been  explored  in  England, 
notably  the  Victoria  Cave  near  Settle  in  Yorkshire,  the  Gower  Caves  in 
South  Wales,  the  Brixham  Cave  in  Devonshire,  the  Woking  Cave  in 
Somersetshire,  and  King  Arthur's  Cave  in  Herefordshire,  and  the 
results  have  been  everywhere  practically  the  same  as  those  at  Kent's 
Cavern.  The  same  class  of  implements  have  been  found  and  the  same 
fauna,  with  the  occasional  addition  of  a  few  species,  among  which 
the  hippopotamus  is  the  most  remarkable.  Everywhere  there  is  the 
same  entire  break  between  the  Neolithic  and  the  Palaeolithic  deposits, 
and  the  same  evidence  of  great  antiquity  for  the  latter.  It  would 
appear  as  if  in  the  British  area  some  great  geological  change,  such  as 
submergence  beneath  the  sea  or  invasion  of  trie  ice,  had  exterminated 
or  driven  away  Palaeolithic  man,  along  with  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros, 
cave  bear,  and  other  extinct  animals  of  the  Palaeolithic  fauna,  and  after 
a  long  lapse  of  time  the  area  had  again  become  habitable  and  been 
occupied  by  a  newer  race  and  by  the  recent  fauna. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  the  river  drifts,  which  not  in  England 
only,  but  everywhere,  appear  to  belong  to  a  distinct  period,  vastly 
more  ancient  than  any  of  the  recent  deposits  in  which  Neolithic 
remains  are  found.  So  far,  therefore,  as  the  river  drifts  and  British 
caves  are  concerned,  all  that  we  could  say  of  the  Palseolithic  period  is 
that  it  is  of  vast  antiquity,  and  must  have  lasted  for  an  immense  time, 
as  it  was  in  force  for  the  whole  time  requisite  for  rivers  like  the  Somme 
or  Avon,  which  drain  small  areas,  to  cut  down  their  present  valleys, 
often  two  or  three  miles  wide,  from  the  level  of  their  upper  gravels, 
which  are  in  many  places  100  to  150  feet  above  the  level  of  the  highest 
floods  of  the  present  rivers. 

But  the  caves  of  France  and  Belgium  supply  us  with  more  evidence, 
and  enable  us  to  trace  the  history  of  long  periods  of  Palaeolithic  time, 
and  study  in  detail  the  succession  of  changes  that  have  occurred,  and 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  67 

ihe  habits,  arts,  and  industries  of  the  various  tribes  of  primitive  men 
Avho  occupied  these  caves  and  rock-shelters  at  these  remote  periods. 
In  fact,  it  may  be  said  with  truth  that  we  know  more  about  the  men 
who  chased  the  mammoth  and  reindeer  in  the  South  of  France  perhaps 
50,000  years  ago,  than  we  do  about  those  who  lived  there  immediately 
before  the  classical  era,  or  less  than  5,000  years  ago. 

In  certain  provinces  of  France  and  Belgium  it  happens  fortunately 
that  there  are  extensive  districts  of  limestone,  in  which  caverns  and 
rock-shelters  are  extremely  abundant  and  full  of  Palaeolithic  remains  in 
an  excellent  state  of  preservation.  The  abundance  of  such  caves  may 
be  estimated  from  the  fact  that  the  cliffs,  bounding  one  small  river, 
the  Vezere,  in  the  department  of  Dordogne  in  the  South  of  France, 
contain  in  a  distance  of  eight  or  ten  miles  no  fewer  than  nine  different 
stations,  each  of  which  has  given  a  vast  variety  of  remains  embedded  in 
the  breccias  and  cave-earths  of  their  respective  floors;  and  the  small 
river  Lesse  in  Belgium  has  been  scarcely  less  prolific.  Of  the  abun- 
dance of  the  human  and  animal  remains  found  in  such  caverns  it  may 
be  sufficient  to  say  that  one  alone,  that  of  Chaleux  in  the  valley  of  the 
Lesse,  is  computed  by  Dumont  to  have  yielded  not  less  than  40,000 
distinct  objects. 

The  great  abundance  of  remains  thus  collected,  both  of  human 
bones  and  implements,  and  of  animals  contemporaneous  with  them, 
have  made  it  possible  to  classify  and  arrange,  in  relative  order  of  time, 
a  good  many  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  Palaeolithic  period.  This  has 
been  done  partly  by  the  order  of  superposition  and  partly  by  the 
greater  or  less  rudeness  of  the  implements  of  stone  and  bone,  and  by 
the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  those  animals  of  the  quaternary  fauna 
which  appeared  first  and  disappeared  soonest.  The  result  has  been  to 
show  that  the  period  when  vast  herds  of  reindeer  roamed  over  the 
plains  of  Southern  France  up  to  the  Pyrenees  was  not  the  earliest,  but 
was  preceded  by  a  long  period  when  the  reindeer  was  scarce,  and  the 
remains  of  the  mammoth,  cave  bear,  and  cave  hyaena  were  more  abun- 
dant than  in  the  following  ages.  The  implements  of  this  period  are  of 
the  earlier  river-drift  type  and  extremely  rude,  and  there  is  an  almost 
entire  absence  of  instruments  of  bone. 

Gradually  as  we  pass  upwards  the  more  Southern  forms  of  ele- 
phant, rhinoceros,  antelopes,  and  great  carnivora  disappear,  and  the 
mammoth  and  cave  bear  become  scarcer,  while  the  reindeer  becomes 
more  and  more  abundant  until  at  length  it  furnishes  the  chief  source 
of  food,  and  its  horns  one  of  the  principal  materials  for  the  manu- 
facture of  implements.  Concurrently  with  this  change  we  find  a 
progressive  improvement  in  the  arts  of  life,  as  shown  by  stone  imple- 
ments more  carefully  chipped  into  a  greater  variety  of  forms,  and 
arrow  and  lance-heads,  barbed  harpoons,  awls,  and  needles  for  sewing 
skins,  made  chiefly  from  the  antlers  of  the  reindeer. 

At  length  we  arrive  at  one  of  the  most  interesting  facts  disclosed 
by  these  researches,  that  during  one  of  the  later  or  reindeer  periods 
of  the  Palaeolithic  era,  many  of  the  caves  in  the  South  of  France,  and 
also  in  Switzerland  and  Southern  Germany,  were  occupied  by  a  race 
who,  like  the'  Esquimaux  of  the  present  day,  had  a  strong  artistic 
tendency,  and  were  constantly  drawing  with  the  point  of  a  flint  on 
stone  or  bone,  or  modeling  with  flint  knives  from  horns  and  bones, 
sketches  of  the  animals  they  hunted,  scenes  of  the  chase,  or  other 
objects  which  struck  their  fancy.  These  are  exceedingly  well  done, 


PORTRAIT  OF  MAMMOTH. 

Drawn  with  a  flint  on  a  piece  of  Mammoth's  ivory  j  from  Cave  of  La  Madeleine* 

Dordogne,  France. 


EARLIEST  PORTRAIT  OF  A  MAN,  WITH  SERPENT  AND  HORSES'  HEADS. 
From  Grotto  of  Les  Eyzies.    Reindeer  Period. 


KEINDEER  FEEDING.. 
From  Grotto  of  Thayngen,  near  Scbaffhausen,  Switzerland. 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 


69 


;so  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  recognizing  the  animals  intended  to 
be  represented,  among  which  are  the  mammoth,  cave  bear,  reindeer, 
wild  horse,  and  wild  ox.  The  sketch  of  the  mammoth  which  is  engraved 
on  a  piece  of  ivory,  from  the  cave  of  La  Madeleine  in  the  valley  of  the 
Vezere,  is  particularly  interesting,  as  it  corresponds  exactly  with  the 
mammoth  whose  body  was  found  entire  in  frozen  mud  on  the  banks 
of  a  river  in  Siberia,  and  it  sets  at  rest  all  possible  question  of  man 
having  been  really  contemporary  with  this  extinct  animal  in  the  South 
of  France. 

The  drawings  and  carvings  of  other  animals,  especially  of  the 
reindeer,  are  often  extremely  spirited,  and  one  especially  of  a  reindeer 
engraved  on  a  bit  of  bone  from  a  cave  at  Thayngen,  near  Schaffhausen 
in  Switzerland,  would  do  credit  to  any  modern  animal  painter.  A  very 
few  human  figures  are  found  among  these  primeval  drawings,  but 
strangely,  while  the  animals  are  so  well  drawn,  those  of  men  are  very 
inferior  and  almost  infantine  in  execution.  They  are  sufficient,  how- 
ever, to  show  that  the  savage  of  Perigord  pursued  the  formidable 
aurochs,  naked,  armed  with  a  lance  or  javelin,  bearded  on  the  chin  but 
not  on  the  rest  of  the  face,  and  wearing  his  hair  in  a  tuft  on  the  top 
of  the  head. 

We  do  not,  however,  depend  on  these  drawings  for  evidence  of  the 
«ort  of -men  who  inhabited  these  caves  in  Palaeolithic  days.  A  large 


'>'-:.. ; .  - .  v\v?  -••-'  •  . v  ^•'•'^?'3.4tty, 
•..-"•'.  :-•"••  -^i^tiv ;  •  • " '  • -"  -^  t;«A"*«^  ;r^^:r 


MENTONE  SKELETON.     Palaeolithic.     Reindeer  Period. 

number  of  skulls  and  complete  skeletons  have  been  found  in  different 
caves,  some  of  which  have  served  as  sepulchral  vaults  for  families  and 
tribes,  while  in  others  individuals  have  been  crushed  by  falls  of  rock, 
or  otherwise  interred,  and  in  a  few  cases  skulls  and  bones  have  been 
found  at  great  depths  in  river  drifts,  and  in  the  loess,  or  fine  glacial 
mud  which  fills  up  the  valley  of  the  Khine  and  other  areas  over  which 
the  great  Swiss  glaciers  when  melting  poured  their  turbid  streams. 

The  most  celebrated  of  these  are: 

The  Neanderthal  and  Canstadt  skulls,  which  are  considered  to 
belong  to  the  oldest  type,  having  been  found  in  the  lowest  strata, 
"which  contain  the  rudest  implements  and  the  most  archaic  fauna.  Of 


70        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

these  the  Neanderthal  skull  has  attracted  much  attention  from  its 
singularly  brutal  appearance,  having  a  very  low  and  receding  forehead, 
and  a  massive  bony  ridge  over  the  eyes  resembling  that  of  the  gorilla. 
But  the  brain  is  of  fair  capacity,  and  occasional  skulls  of  a  similar 
type  occur  at  the  present  day,  so  that  we  are  not  warranted  in  saying 
that  we  have  discovered  the  "missing  link"  between  man  and  ape, 
especially  as  the  Engis  and  other  skulls  of  this  period  present  less, 
exceptional  features.  All  we  can  safely  say  is  that  the  oldest  type 
of  man  known  to  us  seems  to  have  been  characterized  by  long  and 
narrow  heads,  prominent  eyebrows,  medium  stature,  and  great  thick- 
ness of  bones  and  prominence  of  ridges  denoting  great  muscular 
strength. 

The  discovery  of  a  sepulchral  chamber  at  Cro-Magnon  in  the  valley 
of  the  Vezere,  with  several  entire  skeletons,  gave  evidence  of  another 
type  which  has  been  found  elsewhere  in  caves  of  the  same  age,  viz., 
newer  than  the  earliest  mammoth  and  cave  bear  age  to  which  the  old- 
est skulls  are  referred,  but  older  than  the  subsequent  reindeer  age,  and 
still  characterized  by  great  rudeness  of  implements.  This  is  a  remark- 
able type,  for  these  savages  were  really  a  fine  race  of  men,  tall  in  stature 
and  with  well-developed  brain.  They  are  long-headed,  but  not  more  so 
than  is  often  found  in  the  best  modern  European  skulls,  and  the  aver- 
age capacity  of  the  skull  exceeded  that  of  most  modern  races,  while 
their  average  height  was  not  less  than  5  ft.  10  in.  for  the  men,  and  5 
ft.  6  in.  for  the  women. 

Another  totally  different  race  appears  in  caves  of  the  same  period 
or  a  little  later,  which  is  known  as  the  Furfooz  race,  from  a  sepulchral 
cave  in  Belgium  where  a  number  of  skeletons  were  discovered,  but 
which  appears  to  have  been  widely  spread  throughout  Europe  towards 
the  middle  of  the  Palaeolithic  period.  The  type  of  this  race  is  almost 
exactly  that  of  the"  modern  Lapp,  short  in  stature,  averaging  not  above 
5  ft.,  though  strong  and  muscular,  and  with  small  round  heads  and 
high  cheek  bones.  From  this  time  forward,  long  and  short-headed 
races,  and  intermediate  types  resulting  probably  from  their  intermix- 
ture, seem  to  have  existed  pretty  much  as  they  do  at  the  present  day, 
and  the  important  conclusion  to  be  drawn  is,  that  even  as  far  back  as 
the  early  Glacial  period,  man  had  already  existed  long  enough  to 
develop  different  races,  and  in  sufficient  numbers  to  scatter  wandering 
tribes  of  savage  hunters  widely  over  the  earth  and  up  to  the  verge  of 
glaciers  and  the  utmost  confines  of  inhospitable  regions. 

In  trying  to  fix  anything  like  definite  dates  for  man's  existence 
upon  earth,  we  must  reverse  the  process  by  which  we  have  proved  the 
enormous  antiquity  of  his  earliest  remains,  and  ascend  step  by  step 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  first  step  is  that  supplied  by 
history. 

Authentic  Egyptian  history  begins  with  Menes,  the  first  king  who 
united  the  different  provinces  of  Egypt  into  one  empire. 

The  date  of  this  event  has  been  fixed  by  the  best  authorities,  who 
have  devoted  their  lives  to  the  study  of  Egyptian  texts  and  monu- 
ments, at  about  5,000  years  B.C.,  or  say  7,000  years  before  the  present- 
time.     Boeck  makes  it  B.C.,  5702,  linger  5618,  Mariette  5004,  Brugsch 
4455,  Lauth  4157,  Lepsius,  3892,  and  Bunsen  3623. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  tendency  of  all  the  more  recent 
investigations  is  to  lengthen  the  da-te,  and  that  of  Mariette  may  be 
safely  assumed  as  the  minimum  limit  of  time  for  the  foundation  of 
the  Egyptian  monarchy. 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  71 

Now  this  date  shows  no  trace  of  approach  to  a  primitive  anci 
uncivilized  state  of  things.  On  the  contrary,  Menes  is  related  to  have 
carried  out  a  great  engineering  work  by  which  the  Nile  was  embanked, 
its  course  changed,  and  the  new  capitol  city  of  Memphis  built  on  the 
site  reclaimed.  His  next  successor,  Tet,  is  credited  with  having 
written  learned  treatises  on  medicine  and  anatomy,  and  the  earliest 
pyramid,  that  of  Sakkara,  was  probably  built  by  a  king  who  ascended 
the  throne  only  eighty-eight  years  after  the  death  of  Menes. 

The  annals  and  monuments  of  Chaldsea  and  China  take  us  back 
to  about  2,500  years  B.C.,  or  say  for  4,500  years  from  the  present  time, 
and  tell  the  same  tale  as  those  of  Egypt  of  dense  population  and  a 
high  degree  of  civilization  already  established.  In  fact,  it  is  evident 
that  the  great  alluvial  valleys  of  rivers  such  as  the  Nile  and  Euphrates 
have  been  inhabited  for  a  number  of  centuries  by  a  population  who 
had  emerged  from  the  hunter  and  pastoral  stage  into  that  of  agricul- 
ture, and  had  increased  and  multiplied  until  great  cities  were  built 
and  mighty  monarchies  founded,  and  who  were  in  possession  of  most 
of  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  The  Egyptian  date  which  carries  us  back 
about  7,000  years  is,  however,  by  far  the  earliest  upon  which  we  can 
rely  as  an  authentic  record,  and  any  glimmerings  ol  history  beyond 
this  are  obviously  mythical. 

Here,  then,  we  take  leave  of  history,  and  must  explore  our  way 
upwards  by  the  aid  of  archaeology  and  geology. 

The  earliest  historical  civilizations  were  all  acquainted  with 
metals,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  bronze,  which  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and 
tin,  very  hard,  easily  cast,  and  well  adapted  for  every  description  of 
tool  and  weapon.  Indeed,  it  has  only  been  superseded  by  iron 
within  recent  historical  times.  But  the  Bronze  Age  was  preceded 
by  a  long  Neolithic  period,  when  stone,  finely  wrought  and  often 
ground  or  polished,  was  used  for  the  purposes  to  which  metal  was 
afterwards  applied.  The  men  of  this  Neolithic  period  were  compara- 
tively civilized;  they  had  all  the  common  domestic  animals,  the  dog, 
horse,  ox,  sheep,  goat,  and  pig;  also  some  of  the  cultivated  grains,  as 
wheat  and  barley;  they  wore  clothing  and  lived  in  villages.  Accord- 
ing to  all  appearance  they  were  the  first  wave  of  the  great  migrations 
into  Europe  from  Asia,  and  either  occupied  regions  left  empty  by  the 
last  vicissitudes  of  the  Glacial  period,  or  conquered,  and  partly  exter- 
minated and  partly  intermixed  with,  the  ruder  savages  of  the  Palaeo- 
lithic period.  Some  think  the  Iberian  or  Basque  people  may  be  a 
remnant  of  this  Neolithic  race,  who  were  driven  westward  by  the  later 
wave  of  Celtic  migration  just  as  the  Celts  were  by  the  still  later  waves 
of  Teutonic  and  Slavonic  immigrants.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain 
that  a  Neolithic  people  were  spread  very  widely  over  the  globe,  as 
their  remains  of  very  similar  character  are  found  almost  everywhere 
in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  and  always  in  association^  with  the 
existing  or  most  recent  fauna  and  configuration  of  the  earth's  surface. 

The  difficulty  in  assigning  any  precise  date  for  these  remains  arises 
very  much  from  the  fact  that  the"  Neolithic  passed  into  the  Bronze  or 
historical  civilization,,  at  different  times  in  different  countries.  The 
Australians,  the  Polynesians,  and  the  Esquimaux  were  or  are  still  in 
the  Stone  period,  while  steam-engines  are  spinning  cotton  at  Man- 
chester, and  the  most  famous  cities  of  Egypt  and  the  East  have  been 
for  centuries  buried  under  shapeless  mounds  of  their  own  ruins. 
It  is  probable  that  all  Europe  remained  in  the  Neolithic  stage  for 


72         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERX  THOUGHT. 

many  centuries  after  the  historical  date  of  the  commencement  of  the 
Egyptian  empire. 

Still  there  are  some  remains  which  may  enable  us  to  form  an 
approximate  conjecture  of  the  time  during  which  this  Neolithic  period 
may  have  lasted. 

The  two  principal  clues  are  furnished: 

1.  By  the  Danish  mosses  and  kitchen-middens. 

2.  By  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings. 

In  Denmark  there  are  a  number  of  peat  mosses  varying  in  depth 
from  ten  to  thirty  feet,  which  have  been  formed  by  the  filling  up  of 
small  lakes  or  ponds  in  hollows  of  the  Glacial  drift.  Around  the 
borders  of  these  mosses,  and  at  various  depths  in  them,  lie  trunks  of 
trees  which  have  grown  on  their  margin.  At  the  present  surface  are 
found  beech- trees,  which  are  no\v,  and  have  been  throughout  the 
whole  historical  period  of  2,000  years,  the  prevalent  form  of  forest 
vegetation  in  Denmark.  Lower  down  is  found  a  zone  of  oaks,  a  tree 
which  is  now  rare  and  almost  superseded  by  the  beech.  And  still 
lower,  towards  the  bottom  of  the  mosses,  the  fallen  trees  are  almost 
entirely  Scotch  firs,  which  have  been  long  unknown  in  Denmark  and 
when  introduced  will  not  thrive  there.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
there  have  been  three  changes  of  climate,  causing  three  entire  changes 
in  the  forest  vegetation  of  Denmark,  since  these  mosses  began  to  be 
formed.  The  latest  has  lasted  certainly  for  2,000  years  and  we  cannot 
tell  how  much  longer,  so  that  some  period  of  more  than  6,000  years 
must  be  assumed  for  the  three  changes. 

Now,  it  is  invariably  found  that  remains  of  the  Iron  Age  are 
confined  to  the  present  or  beech  era,  while  bronze  is  found  only  in 
that  of  oak,  and  the  Age  of  Stone  coincides  with  that  of  the  Scotch  fir. 

The  kitchen-middens  afford  another  memorial  of  the  prehistoric 
age  in  Denmark.  There  are  mounds  found  all  along  the  sheltered 
sea-coasts  of  the  main-land  and  islands,  consisting  chiefly  of  shells  of 
the  oyster,  cockle,  limpet,  and  other  shell-fish,  which  have  been  eaten 
by  the  ancient  dwellers  on  these  coasts.  Mixed  up  with  these  are  the 
bones  of  various  land  animals,  birds,  and  fish,  and  flint  flakes,  axes, 
worked  bones  and  horns,  and  other  implements,  including  rude  hand- 
made pottery,  The  relics  are  very  much  the  same  as  those  found  in 
the  fir  zone  of  the  peat  mosses,  and  although  old  as  compared  with 
the  Iron  or  historical  age,  they  do  not  denote  any  extreme  antiquity. 
The  shells  are  all  of  existing  species,  though  the  larger  size  of  some 
of  those  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  shows  that  the  salt  water 
of  the  North  Sea  had  then  a  freer  access  to  it  than  at  present.  The 
bones  of  animals,  birds,  and  fish  are  also  all  of  existing  species,  and  no 
remains  of  extinct  animals,  such  as  the  mammoth,  or  even  of  reindeer, 
have  been  found.  By  far  the  most  common  are  the  red  deer,  roe-deer, 
and  wild  boar.  The  dog  was  known,  but  appears  to  have  been  the 
only  domestic  animal. 

Most  of  the  stone  implements  are  rude,  but  a  few  carefully- 
worked  weapons  have  been  foun,d,  and  a  few  specimens  of  polished 
axes,  which,  with  the  presence  of  pottery  and  the  nature  of  the  fauna, 
show  conclusively  that  these  Danish  remains  are  all  of  the  Neolithic 
age  and  subsequent  to  the  close  of  the  Glacial  period.  Iri  fact,  similar 
shell  mounds  are  found  in  almost  all  quarters  of  the  globe  where 
savage  tribes  have  lived  on  the  sea-coast,  subsisting  mainly  on  shell- 
fish, and  they  are  probably  still  being  formed  on  the  shores  of  the 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  73 

Greenland  and  Arctic  Seas,  and  in  Australia,  and  remote  islands  of 
the  Pacific. 

Human  remains  are  scarce  in  these  Danish  deposits,  but  numerous 
skulls  and  skeletons  have  been  found  in  tumuli  which,  from  their  situ- 
ation and  from  stone  implements  being  buried  with  the  dead,  may  be 
reasonably  inferred  to  be  those  of  the  people  of  the  peat  mosses  and 
shell  mounds.  They  denote  a  short  race  with  small  and  very  round 
heads,  in  many  respects  resembling  the  present  Lapps,  but  with  a 
more  projecting  ridge  over  the  eye. 

On  the  whole,  all  we  can  conclude  from  these  Danish  remains  is 
that  at  some  period,  not  less  than  6,000  or  7,000  years  ago,  when 
civilization  had  already  been  long  established  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
rude  races  resembling  the  Lapps  or  Esquimaux  lived  on  the  shores  of 
the  Baltic,  who,  although  so  much  more  recent,  and  acquainted  with 
the  domestic  dog,  pottery,  and  the  art  of  polishing  stone,  had  not 
advanced  much  beyond  the  condition  of  the  later  cave-men  of  the 
South  of  France;  and  that  this  race  was  succeeded  by  one  who  brought 
in  the  much  higher  civilization  of  the  Bronze  Age. 

The  lake-dwellings  of  Switzerland  give  still  more  detailed  and 
interesting  information  as  to  Neolithic  times. 

During  a  very  dry  summer  in  1854,  the  Lake  of  Zurich  fell  below 
its  usual  level  and  disclosed  the  remains  of  ancient  piles  driven  into 
the  mud,  from  which  a  number  of  deer-horns  and  other  implements 
were  dredged  up.  This  led  to  further  researches,  and  the  result  has 
been  that  a  large  number  of  villages  built  on  these  piles  has  been  dis- 
covered in  almost  all  the  Swiss  lakes,  as  well  as  in  those  of  Italy  and 
other  countries.  On  the  whole,  more  than  200  have  been  discovered 
in  Switzerland,  ajnd  fresh  ones  are  being  constantly  brought  to  light. 
They  range  over  a  long  period,  a  few  belonging  to  the  Iron  and  even 
to  Roman  times;  while  the  greater  number  are  almost  equally 
divided  between  the  Age  of  Bronze  and  that  of  Stone.  Some  of  them 
are  of  large  size,  and  must  have  been  long  inhabited  and  supported  a 
numerous  population,  from  the  immense  number  of  implements  found, 
which  at  one  station  alone,  that,  of  Concise  on  the  Lake  of  Neufchatel, 
amounted  to  25,000.  These  implements  consist  mainly  of  axes,  knives, 
arrow-heads,  saws,  chisels,  hammers,  awls,  and  needles,  with  a  quantity 
of  broken  pottery,  spindle-whorls,  sinkers  for  nets,  and  other  objects. 

In  the  oldest  stations,  where  no  trace  of  metal  is  found,  and  the 
decay  of  the  piles  to  a  lower  le^el  shows  the  greatest  antiquity,  the 
implements  are  all  of  the  Neolithic  type,  and  the  animal  remains 
associated  with,  them  are  all  of  the  recent  fauna.  There  are  no 
mammoths,  rhinoceroses,  or  reindeer;  the  wild  animals  are  the  red 
deer  and  roe,  the  urus,  bison,  elk,  bear,  wolf,  wild  cat,  fox,  badger, 
V'ild  boar,  ibex,  and  other  existing  species;  and  of  domestic  animals, 
the  dog,  pig,  horse,  goat,  sheep,  and  at  least  two  varieties  of  oxen. 
Birds,  reptiles,  and  fish,  were  all  of  common  existing  species.  Carbonized 
ears  of  wheat  and  barley  have  been  found,  as  also  pears  and  apples, 
and  the  seeds,  stones,  and  shells  of  raspberry,  blackberry,  wild  plum, 
hazel-nut,  and  beech  nut.  Twine,  and  bits  of  matting  made  of  flax,  as  well 
as  the  occurrence  of  spindle- whorls,  show  that  the  pile-dwellers  were 
acquainted  with  the  art  of  weaving. 

On  the  whole,  these  pile-villages  show  that  a  large  population 
lived  in  Switzerland  for  a  long  time  before  the  dawn  of  history,  who 
liad  already  attained  a  considerable  amount  of  civilization  at  their 


74         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

first  appearance,  which  went  on  steadily  increasing  down  to  the  time 
of  the  Roman  conquest.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  fix  an 
approximate  date  for  the  earliest  of  these  pile-villages,  but  they  have 
not  been  very  successful.  They  have  been  based  mainly  on  the 
amount  of  silting  up  which  has  taken  place  in  some  of  the  smaller  lakes 
since  the  piles  were  driven  in,  as  compared  with  that  which  has 
occurred  sinco  the  Eoman  period.  The  best  calculations  appear  to 
show  that  6,000  or  7,000  years  ago  Switzerland  was  already  inhabited 
by  men  who  used  polished  stone  implements,  but  how  long  they  had 
been  there  we  had  no  distinct  evidence  to  show.  Perhaps  10,000  years 
may  be  taken  as  the  outside  limit  of  time  that  can  be  allowed  for  the 
Neolithic  period  in  Switzerland,  Denmark,  or  any  known  part  of 
Europe. 

In  Egypt,  however,  there  is  evidence  of  a  much  greater  antiquity. 
Fragments  of  pottery,  which  was  entirely  unknown  in  the  Palaeolithic 
age,  have  been  brought  up  by  borings  in  the  Nile  Valley  from  depths 
wrhich,  at  the  average  rate  of  accumulation  there  during  the  last  3,000 
years  of  three  inches  and  a  half  in  a  century,  would  denote  an  age  of 
from  13,000  to  18,000  years.  Looking  at  the  dense  population  and 
high  civilization  of  Egypt  at  the  commencement  of  history,  7,000 
years  ago,  it  is  highly  probable  that  this  time  at  least  must  have 
elapsed  since  the  country  was  first  occupied  by  a  settled  agricultural 
population  as  far  advanced  in  the  arts  of  life  as  the  lake-dwellers  of 
Switzerland. 

Any  calculation,  however,  of  Neolithic  time  takes  us  back  a  very 
short  step  in  the  history  of  the  human  race.  The  Palaeolithic  period 
must  evidently  have  been  of  vastly  longer  duration. 

Any  attempt  to  estimate  this  must  depend  entirely  on  geological 
considerations.  Palaeolithic  man  is  part  of  the  Quaternary  fauna, 
which  came  in  with  the  commencement  and  continued  down  to  the 
close  of  the  great  Glacial  period. 

In  carrying  our  researches  further  back,  the  possibility  of  assign- 
ing anything  like  a  definite  date  for  the  existence  of  man  depends, 
therefore,  on  the  question  whether  it  is  possible  to  fix  any  approximate 
dates  for  the  commencement  and  duration  of  this  period. 

In  the  first  place,  how  do  we  know  that  there  has  been  a  Glacial 
period"? 

In  England  we  are  familiar  with  water,  but  not  with  ice;  we  there- 
fore recognize  at  once  the  signs  of  the  action  of  water.  If  we  come 
across  a  dry  channel,  winding  in  alternating  curves  between  eroded 
banks,  and  showing  deposits  of  gravel  and  silt,  we  say  without  hesita- 
tion, "Here  a  river  formerly  ran."  But  if  we  had  lived  in  Switzerland, 
we  should  recognize  with  equal  certainty  the  signs  of  glacial  action. 
Suppose  any  one  visiting  Chamouni  walks  up  the  valley  to  the  foot  of 
the  Mer  de  Glace,  where  the  Arve  issues  from  the  glacier,  let  us  say  in 
autumn,  when  the  front  of  the  glacier  has  shrunk  back  some  distance, 
what  does  he  see?  Hounded  and  polished  rocks,  which  seem  as  if  they 
had  been  planed  by  a  gigantic  plane  working  downwards  over  them, 
and  on  these  a  mass  of  miscellaneous  rubbish  shot  down  as  if  from  a 
dust-cart,  consisting  of  stones  of  all  sizes,  some  of  them  boulders  as 
big  as  a  house,  scattered  irregularly  on  a  mass  of  clay  and  sand. 
When  he  looks  more  closely  he  will  see  that  these  stones  are  not 
rounded  as  they  would  be  by  running  water,  but  blunted  at  their 
angles  by  a  slow  grinding  action;  and  in  many  cases,  both  the  stones 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  75 

and  the  rocks  on  which  they  rest  are  scratched  and  striated  in  a 
direction  which  is  that  of  the  glacier's  motion.  At  the  bottom  of  this 
rubbish-heap  he  will  find  the  clay  into  which  the  rock  has  been  ground 
by  the  full  weight  of  the  glacier,  very  stiff  and  compact;  while  if  he 
look  down  the  valley,  he  will  see,  on  a  hot  day,  a  swollen  and  turbid 
river  issuing  from  the  melting  ice  and  flooding  the  meadows,  on  which 
it  will  leave  a  deposit  of  fine  mud.  These  are  effects  actually  produced 
by  ice;  and  wherever  he  sees  them  he  can  infer  the  former  presence  of 
glacier,  as  certainly  as  when  he  sees  a  bed  of  rounded  pebbles  he  infers 
the  former  presence  of  running  water.  The  planed  rocks  are  com- 
monly known  as  roches  moutonn'ees  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of 
their  smooth,  rounded  hummocks  to  the  backs  of  a  flock  of  sheep 
lying  down;  the  rubbish-heaps  are  called  moraines;  and  the  stiff 
bottom  clay  with  boulders  embedded  in  it  is  called  the  grund-moraine, 
till,  or  boulder  clay;  while  the  blunted  and  scratched  stones  are  said 
to  be  glaciated. 

These  tests,  therefore,  roches  moutonnees •,  moraines,  boulders, 
and  glaciated  stones,  are  infallible  proofs  that  whevever  we  find  them 
there  has  been  ice-action,  either  in  the  form  of  glaciers,  or  of  icebergs, 
which  are  only  detached  portions  of  glanciers  floated  off  when  the 
glacier  ends  in  the  sea.  Now,  if  our  inquirer  extends  his  view,  ha 
will  find  that  these  signs,  the  meaning  of  which  he  has  learned  at  the 
head  of  the  valley  of  Chamouni,  are  to  be  found  equally  in  every 
valley  and  over  the  whole  plain  of  Switzerland,  up  to  a  height  of  more 
than  3,000  feet  on  the  slope  of  the  opposite  Jura  range,  while  on  the 
Italian  side  the  Glacial  drift  extends  far  into  the  plains  of  Piedmont. 

Extending  our  view  still  more  widely,  we  find  that  every  high 
mountain  range  in  the  Northern  hemisphere  has  had  its  system  of 
glaciers;  and  one  great  mountain  mass,  that  of  Scandinavia,  has  been 
the  nucleus  of  an  enormous  ice-cap,  radiating  to  a  distance  of  not  less 
than  1,000  miles,  and  thick  enough  to  block  up  with  solid  ice  the 
North  Sea,  the  German  Ocean,  the  Baltic,  and  even  the  Atlantic  up  to 
the  100  fathom  line.  This  ice-cap,  coalescing  with  local  glaciers  from 
the  higher  lands  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  swept  over  their 
surface,  regardless  of  minor  inequalities  of  hill  and  valley,  as  far 
south  as  to  the  present  Thames  Valley,  grinding  down  rocks,  scatter- 
ing drift  and  boulders,  and,  in  fact,  doing  the  first  rough  sub-soil 
ploughing  which  prepared  most  of  our  present  arable  fields  for  cultiva- 
tion. The  same  ice -sheet  spread  masses  of  similar  drift  over  Northern 
Germany,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  the  northern  half  of  European 
Russia,  and  left  behind  it  numerous  boulders  which  must  have  trav- 
eled all  the  way  from  Norway  or  Lapland. 

If  we  cross  the  Atlantic  we  find  the  same  thing  repeated  on  a 
still  larger  scale  in  North  America.  A  still  more  gigantic  ice-cap, 
radiating  from  the  Laurentian  ranges,  which  extend  towards  the  pole 
from  Canada,  has  glaciated  all  the  minor  mountain  ranges  to  the 
south  up  to  heights  sometimes  exceeding  3,000  feet,  and  coales- 
cing vast  glaciers  thrown  off  by  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  their 
eastern  flanks,  has  swept  over  the  whole  continent,  leaving  its  record 
in  the  form  of  drift  and  boulders,  down  to  the  40th  parallel  of  latitude. 
It  is  difficult  to  realize  the  existence  of  such  gigantic  glaciers,  but  the 
proofs  they  have  left  are  incontrovertible,  and  we  have  only  to  Jo'ok  to 
Greenland  to  see  similar  effects  actually  in  operation.  The  whole  of 
that  vast  country,  where  at  former  periods  of  the  earth's  history,. 


76         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

iruit-trees  grew  and  a  genial  climate  prevailed,  is  now  buried  deep 
Tinder  one  solid  ice-cap,  from  which  only  a  few  of  the  highest  peaks 
protrude,  and  which  discharges  its  surplus  accumulation  of  winter 
snow  by  huge  glaciers  filling  all  the  fiords  and  pushing  out  into  the 
sea  with  an  ice-wall  sometimes  forty  or  fifty  miles  in  length,  from 
which  icebergs  are  continually  breaking  off  and  floating  away.  A  still 
more  gigantic  ice-wall  surrounds  the  Southern  Pole,  and  in  a  compara- 
tively low  latitute  presented  an  insuperable  barrier  to  the  further  prog- 
ress of  the  ships  of  Sir  J.  Ross's  expedition. 

A  btill  closer  examination  of  the  Glacial  period  shows  that  it  was 
not  one  single  period  of  intense  cold  but  a  prolonged  period,  during 
which  there  were  several  alternations,  the  glaciers  having  retreated 
and  advanced  several  times  with  comparatively  mild  inter-glacial 
periods,  but  finally  with  a  tendency  on  each  successive  advance  to 
contract  its  area,  until  the  ice  shrank  into  the  recesses  of  high  moun- 
tains, where  alone  we  now  find  it.  Another  noteworthy  point  is  that 
during  this  long  Glacial  period  there  were  several  great  oscillations  in 
the  level  of  sea  and  land. 

Such  was  the  Glacial  period,  and  to  assign  its  date  is  to  fix  the 
date  when  we  know  with  certainty  that  man  already  existed,  and  had 
for  some  long  though  unknown  time  previously  been  an  inhabitant  of 
earth.  Is  this  possible?  To  answer  this  question  we  must  begin  by 
considering  what  are  the  causes,  or  combination  of  causes,  which  may 
have  given  rise  to  such  a  Glacial  period.  When  we  look  at  the  causes 
which  actually  produce  existing  glaciers,  we  find  that  extreme  cold 
alone  is  not  sufficient.  In  the  coldest  known  region  of :  the  earth,  in 
Eastern  Siberia,  there  are  no  glaciers,  for  the  land  is  low  and  level 
and  the  air  dry.  On  the  other  hand,  in  New  Zealand,  in  the  lat'tude 
of  England  and  with  a  mean  annual  temperature  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  West  of  Scotland,  enormous  glaciers  descend  to  within  700 
feefc  of  the  sea-level.  The  reason  is  obvious;  the  Alps  of  the  South 
Island  rise  to  the  height  of  11,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  preva- 
lent westerly  winds  strike  on  them  laden  with  moisture  from  their 
passage  over  a  wide  expanse  of  ocean.  In  like  manner,  in  the  case  of 
the  Swiss  Alps,  the  Himalayas,  and  other  great  mountain  ranges,  high 
land  and  moist  winds  everywhere  make  glaciers.  Given  the  moist 
wind,  any  great  depression  of  temperature,  whether  arising  from 
elevation  of  land  or  other  causes,  will  make  it  deposit  its  moisture  in 
the  form  of  snow,  and  the  accumulation  of  snow  on  a  large  surface  of 
elevated  land  must  inevitably  relieve  itself  by  pushing  down  rivers  of 
ice  to  the  point  where  it  melts,  just  as  the  rain-fall  relieves  itself  by 
pouring  down  rivers  to  the  point  where  the  surplus  water  finds  its 
level  in  the  sea. 

When  the  two  conditions  of  high  land  and  moist  winds  are 
combined,  low  temperature  increases  their  effect,  and  the  snow-fall 
consolidates  into  a  great  ice-cap,  from  which  only  the  tops  of  the 
highest  mountains  project,  and  which  pushes  out  gigantic  glaciers  far 
over  surrounding  countries  and  into  adjacent  seas.  Such  is  now  the 
<case  in  Greenland,  and  was  formerly  the  caso  in  Scandinavia,  where  a 
huge  sheet  of  ice  radiated  from  it  over  Northern  Germany  as  far  as 
Dresden,  filled  up  the  North  Sea,  and,  coalescing  with  smaller  ice-caps 
from  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  England,  and  WTales,  buried  the 
British  Islands  up  to  the  Thames  under  massive  ice.  At  the  same 
period  glaciers  from  the  Alps  filled  the  whole  plain  of  Switzerland,  and 
in  North  America  the  ice-cap  extended  from  Labrador  to  Philadelphia. 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  IT 

The  first  remark  to  be  made  is  that,  as  these  phenomena  depend 
primarily  on  moist  winds,  and  only  secondarily  on  cold,  and  as  moist 
winds  imply  great  evaporation  and  therefore  great  solar  heat  over 
extensive  surfaces  of  water,  all  explanations  are  worthless  which  sup- 
pose a  general  prevalence  of  cold,  either  from  less  solar  radiation,  pas- 
sage through  a  colder  region  of  space,  or  otherwise.  We  must  seek 
for  a  cause  which  is  consistent  with  the  general  laws  of  Nature,  and 
with  the  leading  facts  of  the  actual  generation  of  glaciers  at  the 
present  day. 

Astronomers  believe  that  they  have  discovered  such  a  cause,  in 
the  theory  first  started  by  Mr.  Croll,  that  the  glaciation  of  the 
Northern  hemisphere  was  due  to  a  secular  change  in  the  shape  of  the 
earth's  orbit,  combined  with  the  shorter  changes  produced  by  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes.  The  latter  cause  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  earth  is  not  an  exact  sphere  but  slightly  protuberant  at  the  equa- 
tor, and  that  the  attraction  of  the  sun  on  this  protuberant  matter 
prevents  the  axis  round  which  the  earth  rotates  from  remaining 
exactly  parallel  with  itself,  and  makes  it  move  slowly  round  its  mean 
position  just  as  we  see  in  the  case  of  a  schoolboy's  top,  which  reels 
round  an  imaginary  upright  axis  while  spinning  rapidly.  This  revolu- 
tion in  the  case  of  the  earth  completes  its  circle  in  about  21,000  years, 
so  that  if  summer,  when  the  pole  is  turned  towards  the  sun,  occurred 
in  the  Northern  hemisphere  when  the  earth  was  in  perihelion,  or 
nearest  the  sun,  and  consequently  winter  when  it  was  in  aphelion,  or 
furthest  away  from  the  sun,  after  10,500  years  the  position  would  be 
exactly  reversed,  and  winter  would  occur  in  perihelion  and  summer  in 
aphelion;  the  Southern  hemisphere  then  enjoying  the  same  conditions 
as  those  of  the  Northern  one  10,500  years  earlier.  And  in  another 
10,500  years  things  would  come  back  to  their  original  position. 

Now  if  the  earth's  orbit  were  an  exact  circle  this  would  make  no 
difference,  all  the  four  seasons  would  be  of  the  same  duration  and 
would  receive  the  same  solar  heat,  in  both  hemispheres,  and  if  the 
orbit  were  nearly  circular,  so  that  the  difference  between  the  perihelion 
and  aphelion  distances  was  small,  the  effect  would  be  small  also.  But 
if  the  orbit  flattened  out  or  became  more  eccentric,  the  effect  would  be 
increased.  The  time  of  traversing  the  aphelion  portion  of  the  annual 
orbit  would  become  longer  and  that  of  traversing  the  perihelion  portion 
shorter,  as  the  orbit  departed  from  the  form  of  a  circle  and  became 
more  elliptic.  Whenever,  therefore,  the  North  Pole  was  turned  away 
from  the  sun  in  aphelion,  the  winters  would  be  longer  than  the 
summers  in  the  Northern  hemisphere,  and  conversely,  the  summers 
would  be  longer  than  the  winters  when,  after  an  interval  of  10,500 
years,  precession  brought  about  the  opposite  condition  of  things,  in 
which  winter  occurred  in  perihelion. 

At  present  the  earth's  orbit  is  nearly  circular,  and  the  Northern 
hemisphere  is  nearest  the  sun  in  winter  and  furthest  from  it  in  summer, 
but  the  difference  is  only  about  3,000,000  miles,  or  a  small  fraction  of 
the  total  mean  distance  of  93,000,000  miles,  which  makes  the  winter 
half  of  the  year  shorter  than  the  summer  half  by  nearly  eight  days. 

But  mathematical  calculations  show  that  under  the  complicated 
attractions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  larger  planets,  the  eccentricity  of  the 
earth's  orbit  slowly  changes  at  long  and  irregular  intervals,  but  always 
within  fixed  limits,  increasing  up  to  a  certain  point  and  then  dimin- 
ishing till  it  approaches  the  circular  form,  [when  it  again  increases. 


78         MODERX  SCIENCE  AND   MODERN  THOUGHT. 

The  maximum  limit  of  eccentricity  makes  the  difference  between  the 
greatest  and  least  distances  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  range  between 
12,000,000  and  14,000,000  miles,  which  is  four  or  five  times  as  great 
as  at  present;  and  with  this  eccentricity,  and  winter  in  aphelion  in 
the  Northern  hemisphere,  the  winter  half  of  the  year  in  Northern 
latitudes  would  be  twenty-six  days  longer  than  the  summer  half, 
instead  of  eight  days  shorter  as  at  present.  In  this  state  of  things 
the  quantity  of  heat  received  daily  from  the  sun  in  winter  would  be 
such  as  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the  whole  Northern  hemisphere 
by  35°  Fahrenheit,  and  reduce  the  average  January  temperature  of 
England  from  39  to  4°,  while  the  mean  summer  temperature  would 
be  about  60°  higher  than  at  present.  But  this  summer  heat,  derived 
from  solar  radiation,  would  not  counteract  the  cold  of  winter,  for  all 
moisture  during  winter  being  accumulated  in  ice,  and  snow,  most  of 
the  solar  heat  of  summer  would  be  expended  in  supplying  latent  heat 
to  melt  a  portion  of  this  frozen  accumulation,  and  dense  fogs  would 
intercept  a  large  amount  of  the  solar  radiation. 

After  10,500  years  this  state  of  things  would  be  entirely  reversed, 
and  with  twenty-six  days  more  of  summer,  and  the  earth  12,000,000 
miles  nearer  the  sun  in  winter,  the  Northern  hemisphere  would  enjoy 
something  like  perpetual  spring.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these 
are  real  causes,  and  the  only  difficulty  is  to  'account  for  their  not 
having  been  more  invariable  in  their  operation  and  given  us  a  constant 
succession  of  Glacial  periods  since  the  commencement  of  geological 
time,  whenever  the  eccentricity  became  great,  which  occurs  at  irregular 
periods,  but  practically  about  three  times  in  'every  3,000,000  years. 
The  answer  is  that  the  effects  would  only  occur  when  the  other  con- 
ditions were  present,  viz.,  high  land,  moist  winds,  and  an  absence  of 
oceanic  currents  of  warm  water  like  the  Gulf  Stream.  The  latter  is 
one  of  the  main  causes  which  affect  temperature.  The  difference  of 
temperature  between  the  equatorial  and  polar  regions  causes  a  con- 
stant overflow  of  heated  air  from  south  to  north,  which  is  replaced  by 
an  indraught  of  colder  air  from  north  to  south,  which,  owing  to  the 
greater  velocity  of  the  earth's  rotation  towards  the  equator,  takes  the 
form  of  trade-winds  blowing  constantly  from  a  more  or  less  easterly 
direction.  These  winds,  sweeping  over  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  raise  its 
level  at  its  western  barrier,  and  the  accumulation  deflected  by  America 
fiows  off  in  a  current  which  extends  to  the  western  shores  of  Europe 
and  carries  mild  \vinters  into  the  extreme  North.  In  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  Islands,  which  are  nearly  in  the  same  latitude  as  Cape  Fare- 
well in  Greenland,  there  is  so  little  ice  that  skating  is  a  rare  accom- 
plishment, and  curling,  the  roaring  game  which  is  so  popular  some 
degrees  further  south,  is  quite  unknown.  If  the  Gulf  Stream  were 
diverted,  and  the  highlands  of  Scotland  upheaved  to  the  height  of  the 
Alps  of  New  Zealand  the  whole  country  would  again  be  buried  under 
glaciers  pushing  out  into  the  Atlantic  and  German  Ocean. 

These  considerations  may  show  why  every  period  of  great  eccen- 
tricity was  not  necessarily  a  Glacial  period,  though  under  certain 
conditions  it  must  inevitably  have  been  so,  and  geologists  are  gener- 
ally agreed  that  the  last  period  of  the  sort  must  have  been  one  of 
the  main  causes  of  the  great  refrigeration  which  set  in  over  the  whole 
Northern  hemisphere  towards  the  close  of  the  Pliocene  period,  and 
continued  until  recent  times.  But  in  this  case  we  can  fix  the  date 
with  great  accuracy,  for  calculation  shows  that  the  last  period  of 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  79 

great  eccentricity  began  240,000  years  ago,  and  lasted  160,000  years. 
For  the  last  50,000  years  the  departure  of  the  earth's  orbit  from  the 
circular  form  has  been  exceptionally  small.  We  may  suppose  the 
Glacial  period,  therefore,  to  have  commenced  240,000  years  ago,  come 
to  its  height  160,000  years  ago,  and  finally  passed  away  80,000  years 
before  the  present  time. 

These  dates  receive  much  confirmation  from  conclusions  drawn 
from  a  totally  different  class  of  facts.  A  bed  of  existing  marine  shells 
of  Arctic  type,  apparently  belonging  to  one  of  the  latest  phases  of 
the  Glacial  period,  has  been  found  on  the  top  of  a  hill  in  North  Wales 
which  is  now  1,100  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  the  same  marine  drift 
seems  to  extend  to  a  height  of  upwards  of  2,000  feet.  There  must, 
therefore,  have  been  a  depression  of  the  land  sufficient  to  carry  it 
many  fathoms  below  the  sea,  and  a  subsequent  elevation  sufficient  to 
carry  the  sea  bottom  up  to  a  height  of  certainly  1,100  and  probably 
over  2,000  feet.  In  all  probability,  these  movements  were  very  slow 
and  gradual,  like  those  now  going  on  in  Greenland  and  Scandinavia, 
for  there  are  no  signs  of  earthquakes  or  volcanic  eruptions  in  the 
district;  and  it  is  probable  that  pauses  occurred  in  the  movements,  and 
a  long  pause  when  subsidence  had  ceased  before  elevation  began. 
Without  taking  these  pauses  into  account,  and  assuming  the  elevation 
only  just  completed,  and  that  Sir  C.  Lyell's  average  of  two  and  a  half 
feet  a  century  is  a  fair  rate  for  these  slow  movements,  it  would  have 
required  50,000  years  of  continued  elevation  to  bring  these  shells,  and 
80,000  years  to  bring  the  marine  drifts,  up  to  their  present  height 
above  the  sea;  and  a  similar  period  previously  must  be  allowed  for 
their  submergence.  We  may  fairly  conclude,  therefore,  that  upwards 
of  100,000  years  have  elapsed  since  these  shells  lived  and  died  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  towards  the  close  of  the  Glacial  period, 
which  corresponds  very  well  with  the  date  assigned  by  astronomical 
calculations. 

Again,  another  attempt  to  fix  a  date  for  the  close  of  the  Glacial 
period  has  been  made  by  Monsieur  Forel,  a  Swiss  geologist,  from 
actual  measurements  of  the  quantity  of  suspended  matter  poured  into 
the  Lake  of  Geneva  by  the  Rhone,  and  the  area  of  the  lake  which  has 
been  silted  up  since  it  was  filled  by  ice.  It  is  evident  that  this  silting 
up  at  the  head  of  the  lake  could  only  begin  when  the  great  Rhone 
glacier,  which  once  extended  to  the  Jura  Mountains,  had  shrunk  back 
into  its  valley  far  enough  to  pour  its  river  into  the  lake.  ^  M.  Forel's 
calculations  give  100,000  years  as  the  probable  time  required  for  the 
river  to  silt  up  so  much  of  the  lake  as  is  now  converted  into  dry  land. 
The  data  are  somewhat  vague,  as  on  the  one  hand  the  rate  of  deposition 
may  have  been  greater  when  a  large  mass  of  ice  and  snow  was  being 
melted,  while  on  the  other  hand  it  may  have  been  less,  while  the 
glacier  still  occupied  the  valley  almost  to  the  head  of  the  lake  and  the 
Rhone  had  only  a  course  of  a  few  miles.  All  that  can  be  said,  there- 
fore, is  that  it  gives  an  approximate  date  for  the  close  of  the  Glacial 
period  which,  like  that  derived  from  rates  of  depression  and  elevation, 
corresponds  wonderfully  well  with  the  date  required  by  Cr oil' s^  theory. 

Now,  whether  the  date  be  a  little  more  or  a  little  less,  it  is  clear 
that  man  existed  on  earth  throughout  a  great  part,  if  not  the  whole, 
of  the  Glacial  period.  He  had  existed  a  long  while  in  conjunction  with 
a  fauna  of  more  Southern  and  African  aspect,  before  the  reindeer 
migrated  in  vast  herds  into  Southern  France.  His  remains  are  found 


80        MODERN  SCIENCE  AXD  MODERX  THOUGHT. 

in  caves  and  river  drifts  associated  with  those  of  hippopotamus,  an 
animal  which  could  by  no  possibility  have  lived  in  rivers  which  for 
half  the  year  were  bound  hard  in  ice.  Such  remains  must  therefore  of 
necessity  date  either  from  a  period  before  the  great  cold  had  set  in, 
or  from  some  inter-glacial  period  prior  to  the  great  cold  which  drove 
the  reindeer,  musk  ox,  glutton,  and  Arctic  hare  as  far  south  as  the 
elopes  of  the  Pyrenees. 

In  England  we  can  trace  distinctly  at  least  four  successions  of 
boulder  clays,  that  is  of  the  ground  moraines  of  land  ice,  separated  by 
deposits  of  drifts,  sands,  and  brick-earths,  formed  while  the  glaciers 
were  retreating  and  melting;  and  a  number  of  the  Palaeolithic  imple- 
ments have  been  found  in  what  was  undoubtedly  part  of  the  period  of 
the  second  or  great  chalky  boulder  clay,  which  overspreads  the 
southern  and  eastern  counties  of  England  up  to  the  Thames  Valley. 
The  discovery  of  Palaeolithic  remains  in  the  deposit  of  St.  Prest^  near 
Chartres,  makes  it  almost  certain  that  some  at  least  of  the  ruder  instru- 
ments must  date  back  to  the  very  beginning  of  the  Glacial  period,  and 
all  the  evidence  points  to  the  conclusion  that  man  was  living  during 
the  many  alternations  of  climate  of  that  period,  and  whenever  the 
glaciers  retreated,  followed  them  up  closely. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  going  on  certain  and  ascertained  facts, 
confirmed  by  such' numerous  and  well-authenticated  proofs  that  doubt 
is  impossib  e.  But  \ve  get  on  less  certain  ground  when  we  try  to 
trace  back  human  origin  to  more  remote  periods.  As  regards  this 
question,  we  must  begin  by  describing  siiortly  the  geological  periods 
during  which  the  existence  of  man  may  have  been  possible.  It  is  use- 
less to  go  back  beyond  the  Chalk,  which  was  deposited  in  a  deep 
ocean  and  forms  a  great  break  between  the  modern  and  the  Secondary 
period,  in  which  latter  reptiles  predominated,  and  mammalia  are  only 
known  by  a  few  remains  of  small  insectivorous  and  marsupial  animals. 

The  inauguration  of  the  present  state  of  things  commences  with 
the  Tertiary  period.  This  has  been  divided  into  three  stages:  the 
Eocene,  in  which  the  first  dawn  appears  of  animal  life  similar  in  type  to 
that  now  existing;  the  Miocene,  in  which  there  is  a  still  greater  approxi- 
mation to  existing  forms  of  life;  and  the  Pliocene,  in  which  existing 
types  and  species  become  preponderant.  Then  comes  the  Pleistocene 
or  Quaternary,  including  the  great  Glacial  period,  during  which  the 
whole  marine  and  nearly  the  whole  terrestrial  fauna  are  of  ex- 
isting or  recently  extinct  species,  though  very  different  in  their 
geographical  distribution  from  that  of  the  present  day.  And  finally 
we  arrive  at  the  recent  period,  when  the  present  climate  and  the  pres- 
ent configuration  of  lands,  seas,  and  rivers,  prevail  with  very  slight 
modifications,  and  no  changes  have  taken  place  either  in  the  specific 
character  or  geographical  distribution  of  life,  .except  such  as  can  be 
clearly  traced  to  existing  causes  such  as  the  agency  of  man. 

This  is  the  geological  frame- work  into  which  we  have  to  fit  the  his- 
tory of  man's  appearance  upon  earth.  We  have  traced  him  through 
the  recent  and  Quaternary,  can  we  trace  him  further  into  the  Tertiary? 
Speaking  generally  we  may  say  that  the  Eocene  period  was  that  in 
which  Europe  began  to  assume  something  like  its  present  configura- 
tion, and  in  which  mammalian  life,  of  the  higher  or  placental  type, 
began  to  supplant  the  lower  forms  of  marsupial  life  which*  had  pre- 
ceded them.  But  these  higher  types  were  for  the  most  part  of  a  more 
primitive  or  generalized  character  than  the  more  specialized  types  of 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  81 

later  periods,  and  the  highest  order,  that  of  the  primates,  which  in- 
cludes man,  ape,  and  lemur,  was,  as  far  as  is  yet  known,  represented 
only  by  two  or  three  extinct  lemurian  forms. 

The  plan  on  which  Nature  has  worked  in  the  evolution  of  life 
seems  always  to  have  been  this:  she  begins  by  laying  down  a  sort  of 
ground  plan,  or  generalized  sketch  of  a  particular  form  of  life,  say  first 
of  vertebrata,  then  of  fish,  then  of  reptiles,  and  finally  of  mammalian  life. 
This  sketch  resembles  the  simple  theme  of  a  few  notes  on  which  a  musi- 
cian proceeds  to  work  out  a  series  of  variations,  each  surpassing  the  other 
in  complication  and  specialized  development  in  some  particular  dhec- 
tion.  Now,  in  the  Eocene  period  we  are  in  the  stage  of  the  theme  and 
first  simple  variations  of  the  mammalian  melody.  It  hardly  seems 
likely,  therefore,  that  a  creature  so  highly  specialized  as  man,  even  in 
his  most  rudimentary  form,  should  have  existed,  and  in  the  absence  of 
any  direct  evidence  to  the  contrary,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  his  first 
appearance  must  have  been  of  later  date. 

But  when  we  come  to  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  periods,  the  case 
is  different.  It  is  true  that  in  the  Miocene  the  specialization  of  certain 
families,  as  for  instance  that  of  the  horse,  had  not  been  carried  out  to 
the  full  extent,  and  that  all  the  species  of  Miocene  land-mammals  and 
several  of  the  genera  are  now  extinct.  But  there  were  already  true 
apes  and  baboons,  and  even  two  species  of  anthropoid  ape,  one  of 
which,  the  Dryopithecus,  whose  fossil  remains  were  found  in  the 
South  of  France,  was  as  large  as  a  man,  and  has  been  considered  by 
some  anatomists" as  in  some  respects  superior  to  the  chimpanzee  or 
gorilla. 

Now,  wherever  anthropoid  apes  lived  it  is  clear  that,  whether  as 
a  question  of  anatomical  structure  or  of  climate  and  surroundings, 
man,  or  some  creature  which  was  the  ancestor  of  man,  might  have 
lived  also.  Anatomically  speaking,  apes  and  monkeys  are  as  much 
special  variations  of  the  mammalian  type  as  man,  whom  they  resemble 
bone  for  bone  and  muscle  for  muscle,  and  the  physical  animal  man  is 
simply  an  instance  of  the  quadrumanous  type  specialized  for  erect 
posture  and  a  larger  brain.  The  larger  brain,  implying  greater  intelli- 
gence, must  also  have  given  him  advantages  in  contending  with  out- 
ward circumstances,  as  for  instance,  by  fire  and  clothing  against  cold, 
which  might  enable  him  to  survive  when  other  species  succumbed  and 
became  extinct.  . 

If  he  could  survive,  as  we  know  he  did,  the  adverse  conditions 
and  extreme  vicissitudes  of  the  Glacial  period,  there  is  no  reason  why  he 
might  not  have  lived  in  the  semi-tropical  climate  of  the  Miocene  period, 
when  a  genial  climate  extended  even  to  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen, 
and  when  ample  forests  supplied  an  abundance  of  game  and  edible 
fruits.  The  same  reasons  apply,  with  still  greater  force,  to  the 
Pliocene  period,  when  existing  types  and  species  had  become  more 
common  and  when  a  mild  climate  still  prevailed.  The  existence  of 
Tertiary  man  must  antecedently  be  pronounced  highly  probable;  but 
probabilities  are  not. proofs,  and  the  fact  of  such  existence  must  be 
determined  by  the  evidence.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  while  there 
ought  to  be  great  caution  in  admitting  as  established  a  fact  of  such 
importance,  there  ought  to  be  no  determined  predisposition  to  dis- 
believe it,'like  that  which  for  so  many  years  retarded  the  acceptance 
of  the  evidence  for  Paleolithic  man.  On  the  contrary,  the  fact  that 
man  existed  in  such  numbers  and  under  such  conditions  as  have  been 


82        MODERN  SCIEXCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

described  in  the  Quaternary  period,  establishes  a  strong  presumption 
that  his  first  appearance  must  date  from  a  much  earlier  period. 

Let  us  see  how  the  evidence  stands.  Undoubted  stone  implements, 
and  bones  bearing  traces  of  cuttings  by  flint  knives,  have  been  found 
in  strata  at  St.  Prest,  near  Chartres,  which  were  always  considered  to 
be  Pliocene.  Since  the  discovery,  however,  some  geologists  have 
contended  that  these  strata  are  not  Pliocene,  but  of  the  earliest 
Quaternary  or  perhaps  a  transition  period  between  Pliocene  and 
Quaternary.  This  evidence  cannot,  therefore,  be  accepted  as  conclu- 
sive for  anything  more  than  proof  that  man's  existence  extends  nt  any 
rate  over  the  whole  Quaternary  period,  comprising  the  vast  glacial  and 
inter  glacial  ages  which  have  effected,  such  changes  in  the  earth's 
surface. 

The  next  piece  of  evidence  is  from  Italy,  where  bones  of  the 
Balsenotus,  a  sort  of  Pliocene  whale,  have  been  discovered  in  strata 
undoubtedly  Pliocene,  which  bear  marks  of  incisions  which  to  all 
appearance  must  have  been  made  by  flint  knives  employed  in  hacking 
off  the  flesh.  Doubts  were  thrown  at  first  on  this,  as  it  was  thought 
that  possibly  fish,  or  some  gnawing  animal  like  the  beaver,  might  have 


INCISED  BOXES  OF  BAL.ENOTTTS.     Pliocene.     From  Monte  Aperto,  Italy. 
Figured  by  Quartrefages,  "Hommes  Fossiles  et  Hommes  Sauvages,"  p.  93. 

cut  the  grooves  with  their  teeth.  But  later  specimens  have  been 
found  on  which  the  cuts  have  a  regular  curvature  which  could  not 
have  been  made  by  any  teeth,  and  present  precisely  the  same  appear- 
ance as  the  cuts  which  are  so  commonly  found  on  the  bones  of  reindeer 
and  other  animals  in  hundreds  of  Palaeolithic  caves. 

M.  Quatrefages,  who  is  a  very  eminent  and  at  the  same  time  very 
cautious  authority,  says,  in  his  last  work  on  the  subject  published 
in  1884,  "Hommes  Fossiles  et  Hommes  Sauvages,"  that  "the  most 
incredulous  must  be  convinced.  The  hand  of  man  armed  with  a 
cutting  instrument  could  alone  have  left  marks  of  this  sort  on  a  plain 
surface.  It  is  evident  that  some  horde  of  savages  of  these  remote 
times  has  found  the  carcase  of  this  great  cetacean  stranded  on  the 
shore,  and  cut  the  flesh  off  with  stone  knives  just  as  the  savages  of 
Australia  do  at  the  present  day."  In  fact  incredulity  only  exists 
because  this  is  as  yet  a  solitary  instance  of  Pliocene  man,  and  scientific 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  83 

men,  feeling  that  if  true,  further  evidence  must  soon  be  found,  very 
properly  endeavor  to  keep  their  judgment  in  suspense. 

If  these  bones  of  the  Baleenotus  really  bear  marks  of  human 
tools,  the  spectacle  which  might  have  been  witnessed  on  the  shore 
of  the  Pliocene  sea  perhaps  500,000  years  ago,  must  have  closely 
resembled  that  given  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  from  a  description  by 
Captain  Grey  of  a  recent  whale  feast  in  Australia.  "  When  a  whale 
is  washed  on  shore  it  is  a  real  godsend  to  them.  Fires  are  immedi- 
ately lit,  to  give  notice  of  the  joyful  event.  Then  they  rub  themselves 
all  over  with  blubber,  and  anoint  their  favorite  wives  in  the  same  way; 
after  which  they  cut  down  through  the  blubber  to  the  beef,  which 
they  sometimes  eat  raw  and  sometimes  broil  on  pointed  sticks.  As 
other  natives  arrive  they  4  fairly  eat  their  way  into  the  whale,  and  you 
see  them  climbing  in  and  about  the  stinking  carcass,  choosing  tidbits.' 
For  days  'they  remain  by  the  carcass,  rubbed  from  head  to  foot  with 
stinking  blubber,  gorged  to  repletion  with  putrid  meat — out  of  temper 
from  indigestion,  and  therefore  engaged  in  con- 
stant frays — suffering  from  a  cutaneous  disorder 
by  high  feeding — and  altogether  a  disgusting  spec- 
tacle. There  is  no  sight  in  the  world,'  Captain 
Grey  adds,  '  more  revolting  than  to  see  a  young 
and  gracefully-formed  native  girl  stepping  out  of 
the  carcase  of  a  putrid  whale."' 

The  evidence  for  Miocene  man  is  much  of  the. 
same  character;  very  strong  and  conclusive  as  far 
as  it  goes,  but  resting  on  too  few  instances  to  be 
universally  accepted.  In  1868  the  Abbe  Bourgeois  FLINT  S  BAPEE. 
laid  before  the  Anthropological  Congress  at  Paris  From  Thenay.  Miocene 
certain  flints  which  he  had  found  in  situ  in  un-  Figured  by  Quatrefages 
doubted  Miocene  strata  at  Thenay,  in  the  Beauce,  "Homines  Fossiles  et 
near  Blois.  They  were  received  with  ^  general  Hommes  Sauvages, 
incredulity,  and  the  traces  of  human  design  were 
denied.  The  Abbe,  however,  persisted,  and  having  made  fresh 
discoveries  the  subject  was  referred  to  the  next  meeting  of  the  Congress 
at  Brussels,  who  appointed  a  commission  of  fifteen  of  the  most  emi- 
nent European  authorities  in  such  matters  to  report  upon  it.  Nine 
reported  that  some  of  the  flints  showed  undoubted  traces  of  human 
workmanship,  five  were  of  an  opposite  opinion,  and  one  was  neutral. 
Since  then  fresh  objects  have  been  found  and  M.  Quatrefages,  who 
had  formerly  been  doubtful,  says  in  his  recent  work:  "These  new 
objects,  and  especially  a  scraper  which  is  one  of  the  most  distinctly 
characterized  of  that  class  of  implements,  have  removed  my  last 
doubts."  And  certainly,  if  the  figures  given  at  page  92  of  his 
"Hommes  Fossiles  et  Hommes  Sauvages"  correctly  represent  the 
original  implements,  and  they  really  came  from  Miocene  strata,  doubt 
is  no  longer  possible.  The  evidence  of  design  in  chipping  into  a 
determinate  shape  is  quite  as  clear  as  in  the  similar  class  of  imple- 
ments from  Kent's  Cavern  or  the  Cave  of  La  Mo-deleine.  They  must 
either  have  been  chipped  by  man,  or  as  Mr.  Boyd  Dawkins  supposes, 
by  the  Dryopithecus  or  some  other  anthropoid  ape  which  had  a  dose 
of  intelligence  so  much  superior  to  the  gorilla  or  chimpanzee  as  to  be 
able  to  fabricate  tools.  But  in  this  case  the  problem  would  be  solved 
and  the  missing  link  discovered,  for  such  an  ape  might  well  have  been 
the  ancestor  of  Palaeolithic  man. 


MIOCENE  IMPLEMENTS  FKOM  THENAT  COMPAKED  WITH 
UNDOUBTED  PALEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS  FBOM; 
QUATEKNAKY  CAVES  AND  DKIFTS. 

MIOCENE. 


QUATERNARY.    Chaleus, 

Belgium.    Reindeer  Period. 

Congres    Prehistorique, 

Bruxellss,  1872. 


SCRAPER,  OR  RUDE 

KNIFE.  Thenay.  Mio. 

cene.   Quatrefages, 

p.  92. 


BORER,  oR  AWL. 

Thenay."  Miocene. 

Congres  Prehistorique,,. 

Bruxelles,  1872.  - 


SCRAPEP.  Thenay.  Miocene*. 
Quatrefages,  p.  92. 


QUATEILNARY. 

Le  Moustier. 


QUATERNARY.  :  "Mammoth  Period. 

River  Drift,  Mesvin,  Belgium. 
Congres  Prehistorique,  Bruxelles,  1872* 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 


85 


The  next  instance  is  from  the  valley  of  the  Tagus,  where  flint 
implements  were  alleged  to  have  been  discovered  by  an  eminent  Portu- 
guese geologist,  Seiior  Bibeiro,  in  Miocene  strata.  The  subject  was 
fully  discussed  on  the  spot,  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Anthropological 
Congress  at  Lisbon  in  1880.  The 
general  opinion  seemed  to  be  that 
some  of  the  implements  showed 
undoubted  traces  of  human  de- 
sign, but  some  good  authorities 
remained  sceptical;  and  although 
there  was  no  doubt  that  they  were 
found  in  Miocene  strata,  it  was 
thought  possible  that  flints  of 
Quaternary  age  might  have  fallen 
into  fissures,  or  been  mixed  up 
with  Miocene  sands  by  floods  at 
some  very  remote  period,  and  thus 
become  encrusted  in  a  Miocene 
matrix. 

The  verdict  here,  therefore,  must 
be  ''Probable,  but  not  proven." 
The  same  will  apply  to  the  al- 
leged discovery  of  a  human  skull 
in  California,  buried  under  six 
distinct  layers  of  hardened  vol- 
canic ashes,  and  certainly  of  Plio- 
cene date,  if  not  earlier.  Whitney, 
the  Director  of  the  Geological 
Survey  of  the  United  States,  and 
other  American  geologists,  believe 
this  skull  to  be  Pliocene,  but 
doubts  have  been  thrown  on  its 
authenticity,  and  European  geol- 
ogists do  not  generally  accept  it. 

A  human  bone  is  described 
by  Lyell,  which  was  found  near 
Yicksburg  in  a  side  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  associated  with  bones  of 
the  extinct  Mastodon  and  Megalonyx.  But,  although  undoubtedly 
of  great  antiquity,  there  is  no  proof  that  it  does  not  belong  to  the 
Quaternary  period,  especially  as  the  mastodon  seems  to  have  lived 
until  comparatively  recent  times  in  America,  its  remains  being  often 
found  in  recent  bogs  and  peat  mosses. 

The  same  remark  will  apply  to  the  skull  which  was  found  in 
digging  a  well  at  New  Orleans,  under  six  distinct  layers  of  cypress 
forests  such  as  are  now  growing  on  the  surface,  showing  as  many 
periods  of  successive  subsidences,  subsequent  elevations,  and  station- 
ary periods  long  enough  to  allow  of  a  forest  growth  of  many  genera- 
tions of  large  trees.  Here  again  the  antiquity  must  be  very  great, 
but  we  have  no  reason  to  carry  it  back  into  Tertiary  periods,  or  beyond 
the  recent  period  when  the  Mississippi  began  to  flow  in  its  present 
course  and  form  its  present  delta. 

Human  remains  have  also  been  discovered  in  caves  in  Brazil 
associated  with  bones  of  extinct  animals,  but  we  have  no  clear  infor- 


TEETIARY  HAOHE, 
From  Miocene  btrata  of  Tagus  Valley. 

(Half  the  actual  size.) 

Quartrefages  "  Hommes  Fossiles  et 

Hommes  Sauvages." 


86         MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

mation  as  to  the  time  when  these  animals  became  extinct,  or  as  to  the 
exact  order  of  superposition  in  which  the  human  skulls  and  implements 
were  found,  and  the  occurrence  of  a  polished  stone  celt  in  the  same  cave 
throws  still  more  doubt  on  their  extreme  antiquity. 

The  existence  of  Tertiary  man  must  for  the  present  be  considered 
as  resting  on  three  instances: 

1.  The   undoubted   flint   implements   and   cut  bones  (including 
those  of  the  Elephas   meridionalis,  a  Pliocene  and  Miocene 
species)  of  St.  Prest. 

2.  The  cut  bones  of  the  Balsenotus  from  the  Pliocene  strata  of 
Monte  Aperto  in  Italy,  the  cuts  on  which  appear  to  have  been 
undoubtedly  made  by  the  hand   of  man  armed  with  a  sharp 
cutting  stone  implement. 

3.  The  flints  from  the  Miocene  strata  of  Thenay,  some  of  which 
show  unmistakable    signs   of   having  been  split  by    fire  and 
chipped  into  shape  by  design. 

On  the  other  hand  the  evidence  is  entirely  negative,  that  a  large 
number  of  fossil  animal  remains  have  been  found  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  specially  in  the  Pliocene  of  the  Cromer  forest  bed,  and  the 
Miocene  of  the  Sewalik  hills,  Pikermi  and  Nebraska,  without  finding 
any  trace  of  man.  This  is  true,  and  is  sufficient  to  make  us  require 
great  caution  in  admitting  as  fully  established  a  fact  of  so  much  impor- 
tance, which  would  carry  back  the  antiquity  of  man  from  one  or  two 
hundred  thousand  years  to  at  least  a  million.  But  the  example  of 
Quaternary  man  shows  the  danger  of  trusting  too  exclusively  to 
negative  evidence.  Thirty  years  ago  the  negative  evidence  against  his 
existence  was  considered  conclusive.  Now  his  remains  have  been 
found  over  the  whole  world  and  in  thousands  of  instances. 

It  must  be  remembered,  also,  that  remains  of  Tertiary  man  are 
not  likely  to  be  abundant.  If  man  was  then  living,  it  was  probably 
in  fewer  numbers  and  in  more  limited  areas.  The  pressure  of  popu- 
lation had  not  yet  driven  wandering  hordes  to  follow  sea-coasts  and 
cross  rivers  and  mountains  in  pursuit  of  food.  Probably  at  this  early 
period  man  lived  more  on  fruits,  and  therefore  required  fewer  imple- 
ments, and  his  intelligence  was  less,  so  that  he  had  less  power  of 
fashioning  them.  For  the  purposes  for  which  his  Palaeolithic  descen- 
dents  chipped  stones  into  shape,  he  may  have  used  natural  stones 
which  would  often  answer  the  purpose,  but  which,  when  thrown  away, 
would  leave  nothing  by  which  they  could  be  recognized. 

If  the  forests  now  inhabited  by  the  gorilla  and  chimpanzee  were 
submerged  and  again  elevated,  no  trace  would  be  found  of  the  ex- 
istence of  animals  which  had  built  rude  nests,  used  broken  branches 
of  trees  as  clubs,  and  cracked  cocoa-nuts  with  hammer  stones. 

But  above  all,  the  surface  of  these  older  strata  has  been  so  much 
denuded,  that  the  situations  in  which  alone  we  might  expect  to  find 
remains  of  man  have  almost  entirely  disappeared.  Ninety-nine  hun- 
dredths  of  our  Quaternary  implements  come  from  river  drifts  or 
caves.  Where  are  the  Pliocene  or  Miocene  rivers  or  caves  ?  They 
have  disappeared  amidst  the  revolutions  of  the  earth's  surface  and  the 
constant  denudation  which  wastes  continents  away.  The  negative 
evidence  would  be  strong  if  we  could  point  to  caves  filled  with  bone- 
breccias  of  a  Pliocene-  or  Miocene  fauna,  in  which  no  trace  was  found 
of  human  remains.  But  it  is  weak  as  against  even  a  single  well- 
ascertained  instance,  if  it  merely  amounts  to  such  remains  not  being 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.  87 

frequently  found  where  we  could  hardly  expect  to  find  them.  And  ifc 
is  weak  against  the  strong1  presumption  that  when  Quaternary  man  is 
found  in  such  numbers  and  under  such  conditions,  spread  over  wide 
areas  in  inhospitable  climates,  he  must  have  had  his  first  origin  in  earlier 
times.  It  is,  therefore,  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  this  origin 
must  have  been  in  Tertiary  times,  when  we  know  as  a  certain  fact  that 
large  anthropoid  apes  were  already  in  existence. 

If  this  were  so,  what  would  it  teach  us  as  to  the  date  of  man's 
appearance  ? 

Beckoning  by  the  thickness  of  the  different  stratified  deposits 
which  make  up  the  earth's  crust,  and  assuming  the  average  rate  of 
their  deposition,  or  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  average  rate  of  waste 
of  land  surface  to  have  been  the  same  throughout,  the  whole  Tertiary 
period  carries  us  back  barely  one-twentieth  part  of  the  way  towards  the 
first  beginnings  of  fossil-bearing  strata.  That  is,  if  100,000,000  years 
have  elapsed  since  the  earth  became  sufficiently  solidified  to  support 
vegetable  and  animal  life,  the  Tertiary  period  may  have  lasted  for 
5,000,000  years;  or  for  10,000,000  years,  if  the  life-sustaining  order  of 
things  has  lasted,  as  Lyell  supposes,  for  at  least  200,000,000  years. 
Even  if  we  take  the  shorter  period,  the  time  is  ample  for  the  enormous 
changes  which  have  taken  place  since  the  commencement  of  the  Eocene 
period.  The  average  rate  of  denudation  over  the  globe  has  been  taken 
at  about  one  foot  in  3,000  years,  from  actual  calculations  of  the 
average  amount  of  solid  matter  carried  down  by  the  Mississippi  and 
other  great  rivers.  Now  at  this  rate  it  would  take  only  2,000,000  years 
to  wear  the  whole  of  Europe  down  to  the  sea-level,  and,  in  the  absence 
of  any  compensating  movements  of  elevation,  the  whole  of  North 
America  would  be  washed  away  and  deposited  in  strata  at  the  bottom 
of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  in  less  than  3,000,000  years. 

If,  therefore,  the  origin  of  man  could  be  traced  down  to  the  mid- 
dle Miocene,  or  even  to  the  date  of  the  great  anthropoid  Dryopithecus 
of  Southern  France,  we  should  have  to  assume  a  period  for  his  exist- 
ence of  probably  between  one  and  two  millions  of  years,  a  mere 
fraction  of  the  time  since  the  earth  became  the  abode  of  life  and  exist- 
ing causes  operated  to  bring  about  geological  formations. 

As  regards  the  habits  and  manners  of  Quaternary  man  we  know 
very  little  that  is  positive,  and  can  only  gather  some  vague  indications 
from  the  relics  of  caves  and  river  drifts.  These,  however,  are  suffi- 
cient to  establish,  with  certainty  that  the  law  of  his  existence  has  been 
one  of  continued  progress.  The  older  the  remains,  the  ruder  are  the 
implements  and  the  fewer  the  traces  of  anything  approaching  to  civili- 
zation. In  the  Neolithic  period  man  is  comparatively  civilized.  He 
has  domestic  animals  and  cultivated  plants;  he  has  clothing  and  orna- 
ments, well-fashioned  tools  and  pottery,  and  permanent  dwellings. 
He  lives  in  societies,  builds  villages,  buries  his  dead,  and  shows  his 
faith  in  a  future  life  by  placing  with  them  food  and  weapons.  As  we 
ascend  the  stream  of  time  these  indications  of  an  incipient  civilization 
•disappear.  The  first  vestige  of  the  domestic  animals  is  found  in  the 
dog  which  gnawed  the  bones  of  the  Danish  kitchen-middens,  and  of 
the  earliest  Swiss  lake-dwellings.  When  fairly  in  Palaeolithic  times 
even  the  dog  disappears,  and  man  has  to  trust  to  his  own  unaided 
efforts  in  hunting  wild  animals  for  food. 

Weapons  and  implements  become  more  and  more  rude  until,  in 
the  oldest  deposits,  we  find  nothing  but  roughly-chipped  hatchets, 


88        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

arrow-heads,  flakes,  and  scrapers.  Implements  of  bone,  such  as  barbed 
harpoons,  borers,  and  needles,  which  are  abundant  in  the  midde 
Palaeolithic  or  reindeer  period,  become  ruder  and  disappear.  Pottery, 
which  is  extremely  abundant  in  the  Neolithic  period,  either  disap- 
pears altogether  or  becomes  so  scarce  that  it  is  a  moot  question 
whether  a  few  of  the  rudest  fragments  found  in  caves  are  really 
Palaeolithic.  If  so,  they  clearly  date  from  the  later  Palaeolithic,  and 
pottery  was  unknown  in  the  earlier  Palaeolithic  times. 

•  Judging  from  the  portraits  engraved  on  bone  during  the  reindeer 
period.  Palaeolithic  man  pursued  the  chase  in  a  state  of  nature,  though 
from  the  presence  of  bone  needles  it  is  probable  that  the  skins  of 
animals  may  have  been  occasionally  sewed  together  by  split  sinews  to 
provide  clothing.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  his  habitual  dwelling 
was  in  caves  or  rock-shelters.  Here  was  his  home,  here  he  took  his 
meals  and  allowed  the  remains  of  his  food  to  accumulate.  His  staple 
diet  consisted  of  the  contemporary  wild  animals,  the  mammoth,  the 
rhinoceros,  the  cave  bear,  the  horse,  the  aurochs,  and  the  reindeer. 
Even  the  great  cave  lion  was  occasionally  killed  and  eaten,  and  the  fox 
and  other  smaller  animals  were  not  despised;  while  among  tribes  skilled 
in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  birds  were  a  common  article  of  food, 
and  fish  were  harpooned  by  those  who  lived  near  rivers.  Wild  fruit 
and  roots  were  also  doubtless  consumed,  and  from  the  formation  of 
his  teeth  and  intestines  it  is  probable  that  if  we  could  trace  the  diet  of 
the  earliest  races  of  men  we  should  find  them  to  have  been  f rugivorous, 
like  their  congeners  the  anthropoid  apes. 

The  abundance  of  wild  animals  and  the  long  period  for  which 
hunting  savages  inhabited  the  same  spots  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  at  one  station  alone,  that  of  Solutre  in  Burgundy,  it  is  com- 
puted that  the  remains  of  no  less  than  40,000  horses  have  been  found. 
All  the  long  bones  of  the  larger  animals  have  been  split  to  extract  the 
marrow,  which  seems,  as  with  the  modern  Eskimos  and  other  savages, 
to  have  been  a  great  delicacy,  and  also  used  for  softening  skins  for  the 
purpose  of  clothing. 

Among  the  split  bones  a  sufficient  number  of  human  bones  have 
been  found  to  make  it  certain  that  Palaeolithic  man  was,  occasionally  at 
least,  a  cannibal;  and  in  several  caves,  notably  that  of  Chaleux,  in 
Belgium,  these  bones,  including  those  of  women  and  children,  have  been 
found,  charred  by  fire,  and  in  such  numbers  as  to  indicate  that  they 
had  been  the  scene  of  cannibal  feasts.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
cannibalism  seems  to  have  become  more  frequent  as  man  advanced  in 
civilization,  and  that  while  its  traces  are  frequent  in  Neolithic  times, 
they  become  very  scarce  or  altogether  disappear  in  the  age  of  the 
mammoth  and  the  reindeer. 

As  regards  religious  ideas  they  can  only  be  inferred  from  the  relics 
buried  with  the  dead,  and  these  are  scarce  and  uncertain  for  the  earlier 
periods.  The  caves  in  which  Palaeolithic  man  lived  on  the  flesh  of  the 
Quaternary  animals,  have  been  so  often  used  as  burying-places  in  long- 
subsequent  ages,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  ascertain  whether  the 
skeletons  found  in  them  are  those  of  the  original  inhabitants.  Thus 
the  famous  cave  of  Aurignac,  in  which  Lartet  thought  he  had  discovered 
the  tomb  of  men  at  whose  funeral  feasts  mammoths  and  rhinoceroses 
were  consumed,  is  now  generally  considered  to  be  a  Neolithic  burying- 
place  superimposed  on  an  abandoned  Palaeolithic  habitation. 

There  are  not  more  than  five  or  six  well  authenticated  instances 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  89 

In  which  entire  Palaeolithic  skeletons  have  been  found  under  circum- 
stances in  which  there  is  a  fair  presumption  that  they  may  have 
been  interred  after  death,  and  these  afford  no  clear  proof  of  articles 
intended  for  use  in  a  future  life  having  been  deposited  with  them. 
All  we  can  say,  therefore,  is  that  from  the  commencement  of  the 
Neolithic  period  downwards,  there  is  abundant  proof  that  man  had 
ideas  of  a  future  state  of  existence  very  similar  to  those  of  most  of 
the  savage  tribes  of  the  present  day;  such  proof  is  wanting  for  the 
immensely  longer  Palaeolithic  period,  and  we  are  left  to  conjecture. 
The  only  arts  which  can  with  certainty  be  assigned  to  our  earliest 
known  ancestors  are  those  of  fire  and  of  fashioning  rude  implements 
from  stone  by  chipping.  Everything  beyond  this  is  the  product  of 
.gradual  evolution. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
MAN'S   PLACE   IN  NATUKE. 

A  LTHOUGH  the  establishment  of  the  great  antiquity  of  the 
£\^  human  race  has  attracted  more  immediate  attention,  being  a 
•fact  at  once  intelligible  to  the  general  public,  the  researches  of  anato- 
mists and  physiologists,  aided  by  the  microscope,  have  brought  to 
light  results  quite  as  remarkable  as  regards  the  individual  man  and 
his  place  in  Nature.  Until  recently  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  man 
was  a  special  miraculous  creation,  altogether  superior  to  and  distinct 
from  the  rest  of  the  animal  world.  This  assumption,  gratifying  alike 
to  our  vanity  and  our  laziness  in  the  laborious  search  for  truth, 
has  been  to  a  great  extent  disproved  and  replaced  by  the  Law  of 
Evolution. 

The  most  striking  proof  of  this  is  found  when  we  trace  scienti- 
fically the  growth  of   each  individual  man 
from  his  first  origin  to  his  final  development. 
Man,  like  all  other  animals,  is  born  of  an 
egg.     The  primitive   egg,   or   ovum,   which 
was   the  first  germ  of   our   existence,  is  a 
small  cell  about   the  one-hundredth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,   consisting  of  a  mass  of 
semi-fluid  protoplasm    enclosed  in  a  mem- 
brane, and  containing  a  small  speck  or  nu- 
cleus of  more  condensed  protoplasm.     This  HUMAN  EGG 
nucleated  cell   is  itself  the  first  form  into          M         d  m  ^     , 
which  a  mass  of  simple  jelly-like  protoplasm 

is  differentiated  in  the  course  of  its  evolution  from  its  original  uniform 
composition.  The  nucleated  cell  is  the  starting-point  of  all  higher 
life,  and  by  splitting  up  and  multiplying  repetitions  of  itself  in 
geometrical  progression,  provides  the  cell  material  out  of  which  all 
the  complicated  structures  of  living  things  are  built  up.  In  sexual 
generation,  which  prevails  in  all  the  higher  forms  of  life,  this  process 
requires,  in  order  to  start  it,  the  co-operation  of  two  such  cells  or 
germs  of  life,  one  male,  the  other  female. 

The  first  remarkable  fact  is  that  the  human  egg  is*  at  its  com- 
.mencement,  un distinguishable  from  that  of  any  other  mammal,  and 


90        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN'  THOUGHT. 

remains  so  for  a  long  period  of  its  growth,  going  through  its  earlier 
stages  of  development  in  precisely  the  same"  way.  At  first  the  egg 
behaves  exactly  as  any  other  single-celled  organism,  as  for  instance 
that  of  the  amoeba,  which  is  considered  the  simplest  form  of  organized 
life.  It  contracts  in  the  middle  and  divides  into  two  cells,  each  with 
its  nucleus  and  each  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  original  cell.  These 
two  subdivide  into  four,  the  four  into  eight,  and  so  on,  until  at  last  a 
cluster  of  cells  is  formed  which  is  called  a  morula  from  its  resemblance 
to  the  fruit  of.  the  mulberry-tree.  Development  goes  on,  and  the 
globular  lump  of  cells  changes  into  a  globular  bladder  whose  outside 
skin  is  built  up  of  flattened  cells.  Then  condensation  takes  place, 
from  the  more  rapid  growth  of  cells  at  particular  points,  and  the 
foundation  is  laid  of  the  actual  body  of  the  germ  or  embyro,  the 
other  cells  of  the  germ-bladder  serving  only  for  its  nutrition.  Up  to 
this  point  the  germs  not  only  of  all  mammals  including  man,  but 


MAMMALIAN  EGG. 
First  Stage.  Second  Stage.  Third  Stage. 

of  all  vertebrate  animals,  birds,  reptiles,  [and  fishes,  are  scarcely 
distinguishable. 

In  the  next  stage  the  outer  surface  of  the  embyro  develops  three 
distinct  layers,  the  outer  one  of  which,  or  epidermis,  becomes  the 
outer  skin;  the  inner  one,  or  epithelium,  the  mucous  membrane  or 
lining  of  all  the  intestinal  organs;  and  the  intermediate  layer  the  raw 
material  of  muscles,  bones,  and  blood-vessels.  The  embyro  is  now 
contracted  in  the  middle  and  assumes  the  form  of  a  violin-shaped  disc, 
and  a  slight  longitudinal  furrow  appears,  dividing  it  into  two  equal 
right  and  left  parts,  which  is  gradually  converted  into  a  tube  con- 
taining the  spinal  marrow,  to  protect  which  a  chain  of  bones  or 
vertebrae  is  developed,  forming  the  back-bone. 

And  now  comes  what  is  the  most  marvellous  part  of  the  process, 
viz.,  the  development  of  the  brain,  eye,  ear,  and  other  organs  of 
sense,  from  these  simple  elements.  The  brain  begins  as  a  swelling  of 
the  foremost  end  of  the  cylindrical  marrow-tube.  This  divides  itself 
into  five  bladders,  lying  one  behind  the  other,  from  which  the  whole 
complicated  structure  of  the  brain  and  skull  is  subsequently  developed. 

The  eye,  ear,  and  other  sense-organs,  begin  in  the  same  way.  A 
slight  depression  in  the  outer  skin  extends  until  the  edges  close  and 
form  a  hollow  space  in  which  the  eye  is  formed.  At  first  it  is  a  mere 
black  pigment  mark  on  the  interior  surface  of  the  inclosed  space, 
which  develops  into  the  retina,  with  a  wonderful  apparatus  of  optic 
nerves  for  conveying  impressions  photographed  on  it  to  the  brain. 
The  enclosed  space  itself  is  filled  with  a  fluid,  or  vitreous  humor,  from, 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE. 


91 


which  a  lens  is  condensed  for  collecting  the  rays  of  light  and  con- 
centrating them  on  the  retina,  and  by  degrees  all  the  beautiful  and 
complicated  organs  are  evolved  for  perfecting  the  work  of  the  eye  and 
protecting  it  from  injury.  But  this  fact  must  be  kept  clearly  in  view: 
the  process  is  identically  the  same  as  that  by  which  the  eyes  of  other 
animals  are  formed,  and  its  various  stages  represent  those  by  which 
the  organs  of  vision  have  gradually  risen  to  the  development  of  a  com- 
plete eye,  in  advancing  from  the  lowest  to  the  higher  forms  of  life. 
Thus  in  the  lowest,  or  Protista,  the  eye  remains  a  simple  pigment 
spot,  which  probably  perceives  light  by  being  more  sensitive  to  varia- 
tions of  temperature  than  the  surrounding  white  cells.  The  next 
higher  family  develop  a  lens,  and  so  on  in  ascending  order,  different 
families  developing  different  contrivances  for  attaining  the  same  ob- 
ject, but  all  starting  from  the  same  origin,  development  of  the  cells  of 
the  epidermis,  and  leading  up  to  the  same  result,  organs  of  vision 
adapted  for  the  ordinary  conditions  of  life  of  the  creature  which  uses 
them.  I  say  the  ordinary  conditions,  for  there  are  curious  instances 
of  the  eye  persisting,  dwindling  from  disuse,  and  finally  disappearing, 
in  animals  which  live  underground  like  the  mole,  or  in  subterranean 
waters  like  some  fish  in  the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky  and  under- 
ground lakes  of  Carinthia,  where  the  stimulus  of  light  is  no  longer  felt 
for  many  generations. 


DOG  (six  weeks).  MAN  (eight  weeks). 

From  Haeckel's  "  Schopfungsgeschichte." 

The  history  of  the  ear  and  other  organs  of  sense  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  eye.  They  are  all  developments  of  the  cell  system  of  the  outer 
skin,  and  all  pass  through  stages  of  development  identical  with  those 
at  which  it  has  been  arrested  in  the  progression  from  lower  to  higher 
forms  of  life.  The  same  principles  apply  to  the  development  of  the 
inner  organs,  such  as  the  heart,  lungs,  liver,  etc.,  a  striking  illustration 
of  which  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  gill  arches,  or  bones  which  sup- 
port the  gills  by  which  fishes  breath^,  exist  originally  in  man  and  all 
other  vertebrate  animals  above  the  ranks  of  fish,  but,  in  the  develop- 


92         MODERX  SCIEXCE  AXD  MODERX  THOUGHT. 

ment  of  the  embryo,  they  are  superseded  by  the  air-breathing 
apparatus  of  lungs,  and  converted  to  other  purposes  in  the  formation  of 
the  jaws  and  organ  of  hearing.  In  fact,  we  may  say  that  every  human 
being  passes  through  the  stage  of  fish  and  reptile  before  arriving  at 
that  of  mammal,  and  finally  of  man. 

If  we  take  him  up  at  the  more  advanced  stage,  where  the  embryo  has 
already  passed  the  reptilian  form,  we  find  that  for  a  considerable  time 
the  line  of  development  remains  the  same  as  that  of  other  mammalia. 
The  rudimentary  limbs  are  exactly  similar,  the  five  fingers  and  toes 
develop  in  the  same  way,  and  the  resemblance  after  the  first  four 
weeks'  growth  between  the  embryo  of  a  man  and  a  dog  is  such  that 
it  is  scarcely  possible  to  distinguish  them.  Even  at  the  age  of  eight 
weeks  the  embryo  man  is  an  animal  with  a  tail,  hardly  to  be  distin- 
guished from  an  embryo  puppy. 

As  evolution  proceeds  the  embryo  emerges  from  the  general 
mammalian  type  into  the  special  order  of  Primates  to  which  man 
belongs.  This  order,  beginning  with  the  lemur,  rises  through  the 
monkey,  the  baboon,  and  tailed  ape,  up  to  the  anthropoid  apes,  the 
chimpanzee,  gorilla,  and  orang,  which  approach  nearest  to  the  human 
type.  The  succession  is  gradual  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  forms 
up  to  the  anthropoid  apes,  but  a  considerable  gap  occurs  between 
these  and  man.  It  is  true  that  in  his  physical  structure  man 
resembles  these  apes  closely,  every  bone  and  muscle  of  the  one  having 
its  counterpart  in  those  of  the  other.  But  even  at  its  birth  the 
human  infant  is  already  specialized  by  considerable  differences.  The 
"brain  is  larger,  its  convolutions  more  complex,  the  spine  has  a  double 
curvature,  adapting  it  for  an*  erect  posture,  and  the  legs,  with  a  cor- 
responding object,  are  longer  and  stronger,  while  the  arms  are  shorter 
and  less  adapted  for  climbing.  The  thumb  also  is  longer,  making  the 
hand  a  better  instrument  for  all  purposes,  except  that  of  clasping  the 
branches  of  trees,  for  which  the  long,  slender  fingers  of  the  ape  are 
more  available.  The  great  toe  also  is  less  flexible  and  the  foot  more 
adapted  for  giving  the  body  a  firm  support  and  less  for  being  used  as 
a  hand. 

As  growth  proceeds  after  birth  these  differences  become  more  and 
more  accentuated.  The  infant  chimpanzee  is  not  so  very  unlike  the 
infant  negro,  but  after  a  certain  age  the  sutures  of  the  skull  close  in 
the  former,  making  the  skull  a  solid  box,  which  prevents  further  ex- 
pansion of  the  brain,  and  the  growth  of  the  bone  is  directed  towards 
the  lower  part  of  the  face,  giving  the  animal  a  projecting  muzzle, 
massive  jaws,  and  a  generally  bestial  appearance,  while  at  the  same 
time  its  intelligence  is  arrested  and  its  ferocious  instincts  become 
more  prominent.  Still  these  higher  apes  remain  creatures  of  very 
considerable  intelligence  and  waim  affections,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
behavior  of  those  which  have  been  caught  young  and  brought  up 
under  the  influence  of  kind  treatment.  There  is  a  chimpanzee  now  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Regent's  Park,  which  can  do  all  but  speak, 
which  understands  almost  every  word  the  keeper  says  to  it,  and  when 
told  to  sing  will  purse  out  its  lips  and  make  an  attempt  to  utter  con- 
nected notes.  In  the  native  state  they  form  societies,  obey  a  chief, 
and  often  show  great  sagacity  in  their  manner  of  foraging  for  food  and 
escaping  from  danger. 

Even  in  lower  grades  of  life  than  the  anthropoid  apes  we  can  see 
plainly  many  of  the  germs  of  human  faculties  in  an  undeveloped  state. 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  93 

Those  who  are  fond  of  dogs,  and  have  lived  much  with  them  and 
understood  their  ways,  must  have  been  struck  by  the  many  human- 
like qualities  they  possess,  and  especially  by  the  very  great  resemblance 
between  young  dogs  and  young  children.  They  both  like  and  dislike 
very  much  the  same  people  and  the  same  mode  of  treatment.  They 
like  those  who  take  notice  of  them,  caress  them,  talk  to  them,  and, 
above  all,  those  whom  they  can  approach  with  perfect  confidence  of 
receiving  uniform  kind  treatment.  They  dislike  those  who  have  no 
sympathy  with  them,  or  whose  treatment  of  them  is  either  cold  or 
capricious.  Their  great  delight  is  to  play  with  one  another,  and  often 
to  tease  and  make  a  pretence  of  quarreling  and  fighting.  They  both 
have  an  instinct  for  mischief,  and  are  constantly  trying  it  on  how  far 
they  can  go  without  getting  into  serious  difficulties. 

Later  in  life,  and  in  more  serious  matters,  the  dog  has  certainly 
the  germs  of  intelligence,  and  does  a  number  of  things  which  require 
a  certain  exercise  of  reasoning  power.  He  has  a  good  memory,  and 
imagination  enough  to  be  excited  at  the  prospect  of  a  walk  where 
there  is  a  chance  of  finding  a  rat  or  a  rabbit,  and  to  dream  of  chasing 
imaginary  rabbits  when  he  is  lying  curled  up  on  the  hearthrug.  Every 
dog  has  an  individual  character  of  his  own  as  clearly  defined  as  that 
of  an  individual  man,  nor  can  the  rudiments  of  consciousness  be 
denied  to  the  hound  who,  in  a  kennel  of  twenty  others,  knows  per- 
fectly well  that  he  is  Kover,  and  not  Battler  or  Ranger,  and  waits  till 
his  name  is  called  to  come  forward  for  a  biscuit  When  he  has  got  it, 
his  sense  of  property  makes  him  appropriate  it  as  his  own,  and  respect, 
the  biscuits  appropriated  to  other  dogs,  at  any  rate  to  the  extent  of 
knowing  perfectly  well  that  he  is  doing  wrong  if  he  takes  them  by  force 
or  steals  them. 

In  the  moral  qualities  the  dog  approaches  even  more  closely  to 
man.  His  fidelity,  affection,  and  devotion  even  to  death,  are  proverbial. 
He  feels  shame  and  remorse  when  he  has  departed  from  the  canine 
sense  of  right  and  wrong  or  from  the  canine  standard  of  honor,  and  is 
happy  when  he  feels  that  he  has  done  his  duty.  What  is  this  but  the 
working  of  an  elementary  conscience?  Even  in  the  higher  sphere  of 
religious  feeling,  the  dog  feels  unbounded  love  and  reverence  for  the 
master  who  is  the  highest  being  conceivable  to  him,  or  in  other  words, 
his  God;  and  he  shudders  as  that  master  does  in  the  presence  of  any- 
thing weird  and  supernatural.  Every  good  ghost  story  begins  by 
describing,how  the  dogs  howled  and  shrank  to  their  master's  feet  when 
the  first  shadow  of  supernatural  presence  was  cast  on  the  haunted 
castle. 

Capacity  for  progressive  improvement  can  hardly  be  denied  to  a 
race  which  has  developed  such  qualities  from  ancestors  who,  like  the 
wild  and  half -wild  dogs  of  Asia  and  America,  had  not  even  learned  to 
bark,  and  were  as  unlike  the  civilized  and  affectionate  collie,  as  Palaeo- 
lithic man  to  his  modern  successor.  In  fact,  the  progress  of  the  dog 
seems  only  to  be  limited  by  the  want  of  organs  of  speech,  and  of  an 
instrument  like  the  hand  by  which  to  place  himself  in  closer  relation 
with  the  outer  world. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  elephant,  whose  great  sagacity 
seems  clearly  attributable  to  the  possession  of  such  an  instrument  in 
the  trunk,  inferior  no  doubt  to  the  hand,  but  still  very  superior  to  the 
paw  of  the  dog  or  to  the  hoof-enclosed  fore-foot  of  the  horse.  In  all 
animals  the  greater  or  less  perfection  of  the  instruments  by  which  they 


94         MODERX  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

act  upon  and  are  acted  upon  by  the  outer  world,  seems  to  be  the 
principal  factor  in  determining  the  quality  of  tha  brain  as  an  organ  of 
intelligence. 

In  the  insect  world  we  find  still  more  wonderful  exemplifications 
of  the  resemblance  between  animal  and  human  intelligence.  Ants  live 
in  organized  societies,  build  cities,  store  up  food  for  winter,  keep 
aphides  as  milk-cows,  carry  on  slave-hunting  raids,  and  push  the 
division  of  labor  to  such  an  extent  that  some  tribes  are  all  workers, 
others  all  warriors  and  slave-owners.  These  actions  are  not  all  merely 
mechanical  and  instinctive,  for  ants  can  to  a  considerable  extent  adapt 
themselves  to  circumstances,  and  alter  their  habits  and  mode  of  life 
when  it  becomes  necessary  in  the  "  struggle  for  existence."  The  same 
is  true  of  bees,  beetles,  and  other  insects,  but  it  is  useless  to  dwell  on 
these,  for  the  organization  of  the  insect  world  is  so  different  from  that 
of  the  mammalian,  to  which  man  belongs,  that  no  safe  analogy  can  be 
drawn  from  one  to  the  other.  It  is  from  the  higher  mammalian  types 
that  we  can  fairly  draw  the  inference  that,  if  like  effects  are  produced 
by  like  causes,  the  more  perfect  intelligence,  consciousness,  and 
morality  of  man,  must  be  the  same  in  kind  though  higher  in  degree 
than  the  less  perfect  manifestations  of  the  same  qualities  in  animals  of 
similar  though  less  perfect  physical  organization. 

There  is  one  respect  in  which  the  human  infant  differs  greatly 
from  the  young  of  other  animals,  viz.,  in  the  long  period  for  which  it 
remains  in  a  condition  of  utter  helplessness.  In  many  of  the  lower 
forms  of  life  the  young  creature  emerges  into  the  world  with  many  of 
its  necessary  faculties  complete,  and  has  to  learn  comparatively  little 
from  education.  The  chicken  runs  about  and  picks  up  food  on  the  day 
it  escapes  from  the  egg,  and  the  young  flycatcher  will  peck  at  flies 
with  fragments  of  the  shell  still  adhering  to  it.  As  we  rise  in  the 
scale  of  creation,  these  instinctive  aptitudes  become  fewer,  and  more 
time  is  required  before  the  young  animal  can  shift  for  itself;  and  at 
length,  in  the  human  infant,  we  arrive  at  a  stage  where  for  the  first 
year  or  two  it  can  do  little  to  preserve  its  existence  except  to  breathe 
and  suck. 

The  reason  of  this  is  doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  higher  develop- 
ment to  which  it  is  destined  to  attain.  The  faculties  of  every 
animal  depend  on  two  causes — first,  heredity,  or  those  which  have  been 
evolved  from  the  type,  and  become  fixed  by  succession  through  a  long 
series  of  ancestors;  secondly,  adaptation,  or  those  which  are  acquired 
by  education,  including  in  the  term  everything  that  is  requisite  to 
place  the  animal  in  harmony  with  its  surrounding  environment.  The 
first  are  what  are  called  instincts,  which  exist  from  the  birth,  and  are 
preserved  unconsciously  and  without  an  effort.  The  last  involve  an 
effort,  and  reference  from  the  outer  stations  of  the  senses  along  the 
telegraph  wires  called  nerves,  to  the  central  office  of  the  brain,  where 
the  message  is  recorded  and  the  reply  considered  and  transmitted 
along  another  set  of  nerves  to  the  muscles,  where  it  translates  itself 
into  action.  In  either  case  the  fundamental  fact  seems  to  resolve 
itself  into  a  tendency  of  molecular  motion  to  follow  beaten  rather  than 
unknown  paths.  What  the  brain  has  once  thought  or  perceived,  it 
will  think  or  perceive  more  readily  a  second  time,  and  in  like  manner, 
a  message  which  has  once  been  transmitted  and  read  off  along  a  nerve, 
from  muscle  to  brain  or  from  brain  to  muscle,  will  be  transmitted  and 
read  off  more  readily  by  practice,  until  at  length  it  ceases  to  require 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  95 

conscious  effort  and  becomes  instinctive.  We  may  see  an  illustration 
of  this  in  the  facility  with  which  a  piano  player,  who  began  by  learn- 
ing- the  notes  with  difficulty,  acquires  such  aptitude  that  the  execution 
of  rapid  passages  becomes  mechanical,  and  can  be  carried  on  without 
a  mistake,  even  when  the  performer  is  thinking  of  something  else  or 
talking  to  a  bystander. 

The  outer  world  with  which  every  animal  has  to  deal  from  its  birth 
upwards,  may  be  compared  to  a  dense  forest  or  jungle  through  which 
it  has  to  find  its  way.  A  certain  number  of  paths  have  been  cut  by  its 
ancestors,  and  it  finds  them  ready  made  by  heredity;  others  it  con- 
structs for  itself  by  repeated  efforts  until  they  become  as  broad  and 
easy  as  those  which  it  inherited;  and  finally,  if  the  forest  is  thick  and  its 
area  extensive  it  can  only  be  explored  by  leaving  the  beaten  paths 
of  inherited  or  acquired  instinct,  and  groping  the  way  painfully  by 
conscious  effort  and  attention. 

We  can  now  see  why  the  lower  the  animal,  or  in  other  words  the 
less  extensive  the  forest,  the  whole  vital  energy  may  be  concentrated 
on  the  few  beaten  paths  opened  by  heredity,  and  a  few  necessary 
actions  may  be  performed  from  the  first,  instinctively  and  with  great 
perfection,  while  in  higher  organisms  the  vital  energy  is  employe^  in 
developing  a  great  mass  of  future  possibilities  rather  than  a  small 
number  of  inferior  present  realities.  The  baby  cannot  run  about  the 
room  and  feed  itself  like  the  chicken,  because  the  baby  has  to  grow 
into  a  man  or  woman,  while  the  chicken  has  only  to  grow  into  a  fowl 
which  can  do  very  little  more  in  its  adult  than  in  its  infant  state. 

In  fact,  when  we  come  to  analyze  the  sum  of  faculties  of  the  adult 
man,  we  find  that  they  are  derived  to  a  surprisingly  small  extent  from 
heredity  as  compared  with  education.  In  saying  this,  however,  it 
must  be  understood  that  the  term  "heredity"  is  limited  to  that  direct 
heredity  which  transmits  characters  by  instinctive  necessity,  and  not 
to  the  far  larger  sphere  of  indirect  heredity  by  which  faculties,  arts, 
modes  of  thought,  and  rules  of  conduct,  are  accumulated  in  civilized 
societies,  and  become  the  principal  instrument  of  education  in  its 
larger  sense.  If  it  were  possible  to  suppose  a  human  infant  born  of 
civilized  parents,  left  entirely  to  itself,  what  would  it  grow  into?  Per- 
haps it  would  learn  to  walk,  though  this  is  not  quite  certain,  as  the 
few  wild  children  who  have  been  discovered  in  forests,  went  very 
much  on  all  fours,  and  if  we  can  believe  the  accounts  of  wolf  children 
in  India,  those  educated  among  wolves  adopt  their  gait  and  habits; 
certainly  it  would  not  learn  to  speak,  in  the  sense  of  using  any  articu- 
late language;  its  arts  would  not  extend  beyond  recognizing  a  few 
articles  of  food,  and  perhaps  using  stones  to  crack  nuts,  and  con- 
structing some  rude  shelter  from  branches  of  trees.  It  would  know 
nothing  of  fire,  and  on  the  whole  would  not  be  so  far  advanced  as  its 
oldest  Palaeolithic  ancestor. 

As  regards  a  moral  sense,  and  all  that  we  are  accustomed  to  think 
the  highest  attributes  of  humanity,  it  is  clear  that  his  mind  would  be 
a  blank.  Even  at  a  much  more  advanced  stage,  such  ideas  evidently 
come  from  education,  and  are  not  the  results  either  of  inherited 
instinct  or  of  supernatural  gift.  An  English  child  kidnapped  at  an 
early  age  by  Apache  Indians  or  head-hunting  Dyaks,  would,  to  a  cer- 
tainty, consider  murder  one  of  the  fine  arts,  and  the  slaughter  of  an 
inoffensive  stranger,  especially  if  accomplished  with  a  treachery  that 
made  the  exploit  one  of  little 'risk,  an  achievement  of  the  highest  man- 


96        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

hood.  If  brought  up  among  Mahometans  he  would  consider  polyga- 
my, if  among  the  Todas  polyandry,  as  the  natural  and  proper  relation 
of  the  sexes.  All  that  can  be  said  is,  that  if  recaptured  and  brought 
back  to  civilized  society,  he  would  perhaps  be  assisted  by  heredity  in 
adopting  its  ideas  more  readily  than  would  be  the  case  if  he  had  been 
born  a  savage. 

It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  the  history  of  the  individual  man  tells 
the  same  story  of  evolution  from  low  beginnings  as  is  told  by  that  of 
the  human  race  as  traced  from  Palseolittric,  through  Neolithic,  into 
modern  times.  His  law  is  progress,  worked  out  by  conscious  effort 
called  forth  by  the  environment  of  outward  circumstances,  and  acceler- 
ated from  time  to  time  by  the  successful  efforts  of  a  few  superior  men, 
whose  greater  sum  of  energy  or  happier  organization  for  development, 
enables  them  to  pioneer  new  paths  through  the  vast  unexplored 
forests  of  science,  art,  and  morality. 

The  difficulty  of  accounting  for  the  development  of  intellect  and 
morality  by  evolution  is  not  so  great  as  that  presented  by  the  differ- 
ence in  physical  structure  between  man  aud  the  highest  animal. 
Given  a  being  with  man's  brain  and  man's  hand  and  erect  stature,  it  is 
easy  to  see  how  intelligence  must  have  been  gradually  evolved,  and 
rules  of  conduct  best  adapted  for  his  own  good  and  that  of  the  society 
in  which  he  lived  must  have  been  formed  and  fixe'd  by  successive 
generations,  according  to  the  Darwinian  laws  of  the  "struggle  for 
life"  and  the  "survival  of  the  fittest." 

But  it  is  not  so  easy  to  see  how  this  difference  of  physical  struc- 
ture arose,  and  how  a  being  came  into  existence  which  had  such  a 
brain  and  hand,  and  such  undeveloped  capabilities  for  an  almost 
unlimited  progress.  The  difficulty  is  this:  the  difference  in  structure 
between  the  lowest  existing  race  of  man  and  the  highest  existing 
ape  is  too  great  to  admit  of  the  possibility  of  one  being  the  direct 
descendant  of  the  other.  The  negro  in  some  respects  makes  a  slight 
approximation  towards  the  Simian  type.  His  skull  is  narrower,  his 
brain  less  capacious,  his  muzzle  more  projecting,  his  arm  longer  than 
those  of  the  average  European  man.  Still  he  is  essentially  a  man, 
and  separated  by  a  wide  gulf  from  the  chimpanzee  or  gorilla.  Even 
the  idiot  or  cretin,  whose  brain  is  no  larger  and  intelligence  no 
greater  than  that  of  the  chimpanzee,  is  an  arrested  man  and  not  an  ape. 

If,  therefore,  the  Darwinian  theory  holds  good  in  the  case  of  man 
and  ape,  we  must  go  back  to  some  common  ancestor  from  whom  both 
may  have  originated  by  pursuing  different  lines  of  development.  But 
to  establish  this  as  a  fact  and  not  a  theory  we  require  to  find  that 
ancestral  form,  or,  at  any  rate,  some  intermediate  forms  tending  towards 
it.  We  require  to  find  fossil  remains  proving  for  the  genus  nan  what 
the  Hipparion  and  Anchitherium  have  proved  for  the  genus  horse,  that 
is,  gradual  progressive  specialization  from  a  simple  ancestral  type  to 
more  complex  existing  forms.  In  other  words,  we  require  to  discover 
the  "  missing  link."  Now  it  must  be  admitted  that  hitherto,  not  only 
have  no  such  missing  links  been  discovered,  but  the  oldest  known  human 
skulls  and  skeletons,  which  date  from  the  Glacial  period,  and  are 
probably  at  least  100,000  years  old,  show  no  very  decided  approxima- 
tion towards  any  such  pre-human  type.  On  vthe  contrary,  one  of  the 
oldest  types,  that  of  the  man  of  the  sepulchral  cave  of  Cro-Magnon,  is 
that  of  a  fine  race,  tall  in  stature,  large  in  brain,  and  on  the  whole 
superior  to  many  of  the  existing  races  of  mankind.  The  reply  of 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  97 

course  is  that  the  time  is  insufficient,  and  if  man  and  the  ape  had  a 
common  ancestor,  that  as  a  highly  developed  anthropoid  ape  certainly, 
and  man  probably,  already  existed  in  the  Miocene  period,  such  ances- 
tor must  be  sought  still  further  back,  at  a  distance  compared  with 
which  the  whole  Quaternary  period  sinks  into  insignificance.  It  is 
said  also  that  the  discovery  of  man's  antiquity  is  of  quite  recent  date, 
and  that  thirty  years  ago  the  same  negative  evidence  was  quoted  as 
conclusive  against  his  existence  in  times  and  places  which  now  afford 
his  remains  by  tens  of  thousands.  All  this  is  true,  and  it  may  well 
make  us  hesitate  before  we  admit  that  man,  whose  structure  is  so 
analogous  \o  that  of  the  animal  creation,  whose  embryonic  growth  is  so 
strictly  accordant  with  that  of  other  mammals,  and  whose  higher 
faculties  of  intelligence  and  morality  are  so  clearly  not  miraculous 
instincts  but  the  products  of  evolution  and  education,  is  alone  an 
exception  to  the  general  law  of  the  universe,  and  is  the  creature  of  a 
special  creation. 

This  is  the  more  difficult  to  believe,  as  the  ape  family  which  man 
so  closely  resembles  in  physical  structure,  contains  numerous  branches 
which  graduate  into  one  another,  but  the  extremes  of  which  differ 
more  widely  than  man  does  from  the  highest  of  the  ape  series.  If  a 
special  creation  is  required  for  man,  must  there  not  have  been  special 
creations  for  the  chimpanzee,  the  gorilla,  the  orang,  and  for  at  least 
100  different  species  of  apes  and  monkeys  which  are  all  built  on  the 
same  lines? 

What  are  the  facts  really  known  to  us  as  to  man,  his  nature,  and 
his  origin1? 

Man  is  one  of  a  species  of  which  there  are  in  round  numbers 
some  1,200  millions  of  individuals  living  at  the  present  time  on  the 
earth.  Taking  thirty  years  as  the  average  duration  of  each  generation 
there  are  thus  over  3,000  millions  who  are  born  and  die  per  century, 
and  this  has  gone  on  more  or  less  during  the  period  embraced  by  his- 
tory which  extends  for  a  great  part  of  the  Old  World  over  thirty 
centuries,  in  the  case  of  Assyria  and  China  over  forty  or  fifty,  and  in 
Egypt  over  seventy  centuries.  At  the  commencement  of  these  his- 
torical periods  population  was  dense,  probably  in  Egypt  and  Western 
Asia  denser  than  at  present,  and  civilization  far  advanced.  The 
Pyramids,  which  are  at  the  same  time  the  oldest  and  the  largest  build- 
ings in  the  world,  prove  this  conclusively,  both  from  the  mechanical 
skill  and  astronomical  science  shown  in  their  construction,  and  from 
the  great  accumulation  of  capital  and  highly  artificial  arrangements  of 
society  which  could  alone  have  rendered  such  works  possible.  The 
great  mass  of  the  population  in  these  olden  times  lived  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Old  World,  and  was  accumulated  mainly  in  the  great 
valley  systems  of  the  Nile,  and  of  the  various  rivers  and  irrigated 
plains  of  the  southern  half  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  Northern  Asia 
and  Europe  were  thinly  inhabited  by  ruder  tribes.  Of  America  and 
the  interior  of  Africa  we  know  little  until  a  much  later  date,  but  the 
populatian  was  in  all  probability  sparse  and  savage,  while  in  Australia, 
if  it  existed  at  all,  it  was  still  scantier  and  more  savage;  while  in  New 
Zealand  and  most  of  the  Pacific  Islands  it  has  only  been  introduced 
by  migration  within  comparatively  recent  times. 

The  next  leading  fact  we  have  to  observe  is  that  the  human  race 
is  not  everywhere  the  same,  but  is  divided  into  several  well-marked 
varieties.  The  most  obvious  distinction  is  that  of  color.  In  the  Old 


98        MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

World  there  are  three  distinct  and  clearly  characterized  groups — the 
white,  the  yellow,  and  the  black.  These  are  found  mainly  in  three 
separate  zoological  provinces:  the  white  in  the  temperate  and  north- 
temperate  zones  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia,  the  yellow  in  those  of 
Eastern  Asia,  and  the  black  in  the  tropical  zone,  principally  of  Central 
Africa.  Where  they  are  pure  and  unmixed,  these  race-types  differ 
from  one  another  not  in  color  only  but  in  many  other  important  and 
permanent  characters.  The  average  size  of  the  brain,  the  complexity 
of  its  convolutions,  the  shape  of  the  skull,  the  bones  of  the  face  and 
jaws,  the  comparative  length  of  the  limbs,  the  structure  of  the 
hair  and  skin,  the  characteristic  odor,  the  susceptibilities  to  various 
diseases,  are  all  essentially  different,  so  that  no  observant  naturalist, 
or  even  observant  child  or  dog,  could  ever  mistake  a  Chinaman  for 
a  Negro,  or  a  Negro  for  an  Englishman. 

Such  a  naturalist,  seeing  for  the  first  time  typical  specimens 
of  the  three  races,  would  pronounce  them  without  hesitation  to  be 
distinct  species,  and  would  predict  with  much  confidence  that  they 
would  either  not  cross,  or,  if  they  did,  would  produce  a  hybrid 
progeny  of  inferior  fertility. 

But  here  he  would  be  wrong,  for,  in  fact,  the  most  opposite  races 
breed  freely  together,  and  produce  a  fertile  progeny. 

Moreover,  when  we  extend  our  view  beyond  the  clearly  distin- 
guished types  of  the  white,  yellow,  and  black,  as  seen  in  Caucasian, 
Mongoloid,  and  Negro  races,  we  find  these  types  breaking  off  into 
sub-types  and  shading  off  towards  each  other,  while  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  human  race  consists  of  brown,  red,  olive,  and  copper- 
colored  people,  who  may  either  be  original  varieties,  or  desctn  led 
from  crosses  between  the  primitive  races.  Small  isolated  groups  also 
crop  up,  differing  from  the  main  races,  of  whom  it  is  hard  to  say  from 
whom  they  are  descended  or  how  they  got  there;  as  for  instance  the 
Hottentots,  in  South  Africa,  the  pigmy  black  Negritos  of  the  Anda- 
mans  and  other  South  Asiatic  islands,  the  Papuans  and  Australians, 
the  hairy  Ainos  of  Japan,  and  some  of  the  aboriginal  races  of  India. 

To  a  certain  extent  climate  seems  to  have  had  an  influence  in 
creating  or  developing  the  main  typical  differences.-  Thus  the  main 
line  of  black  races  lies  along  the  hot  tropical  belt  of  the  earth  from 
Old  to  New  Guinea.  But  the  rule  is  not  universal,  there  is  no  similar 
type  in  tropical  America,  where  a  singular  uniformity  of  type  and  color 
prevails  throughout  the  whole  continent.  Even  in  Africa  we  find  the 
Negro  type,  while  retaining  its  black  color,  shading  off  towards  higher 
types  and  losing  its  more  animal-like  characteristics.  Again,  while 
color  becomes  generally  lighter  as  we  pass  from  tropical  to  south- 
temperate  and  from  south  to  north-temperate  regions,  if  we  go  still 
further  north  we  find  darker  races,  such  as  the  Lapps  and  Esquimaux, 
and  in  one  remarkable  instance  the  color  within  the  temperate  zone 
itself  actually  becomes  darker  with  increase  of  latitude,  and  the 
aboriginal  savage  of  Tasmania,  in  a  climate  like  that  of  Devonshire, 
was  blacker  than  many  negroes. 

Even  within  great  and  well-defined  races  themselves  there  are 
clearly  marked  varieties.  Thus  the  white  race  consists  of  the  two 
distinct  types  of  the  fair-whites  and  dark-whites,  the  former  pre- 
vailing in  Northern  Europe  and  the  latter  in  Southern  Europe,  West- 
ern Asia,  and  North  Africa;  the  contrast  between  a  fair  Swede  with 
flaxen  hair  and  blue  eyes,  and  a  swarthy  Spaniard  with  black  hair  and 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  99 

eyes,  being  almost  as  marked  as  between  the  latter  and  some  of  the 
higher  black  or  brown  races.  Throughout  a  great  part  of  Europe, 
including  specially  England,  it  is  evident  that  the  existing  population 
is  derived  mainly  from  repeated  crosses  of  these  two  races  with  one 
another  and  probably  with  earlier  races. 

In  the  existing  state  of  things  also  it  is  evident  that  if  the  differ- 
ent races  of  mankind  ever  really  did  pass  into  one  another  under 
influences  like  those  of  climate,  the  time  of  their  doing  so  is  long 
past.  A  colony  of  English  families  transported  to  tropical  Africa 
would  to  a  certainty  die  out  long  before  they  had  taken  even  the  first 
step  towards  acquiring  the  black  velvety  skin,  the  woolly  hair,  the 
projecting  muzzle,  and  the  long  narrow  skull  of  the  typical  Negro, 
while  a  Negro  colony  transported  to  Scotland  or  Scandinavia  would 
as  certainly  disappear  from  diseases  of  the  chest  and  lungs,  long 
before  they  began  to  vary  towards  the  European  type.  The  yellow 
race  seems  to  be  on  the  whole  the  best  fitted  to  withstand  climate  and 
other  external  influences,  and  it  certainly  shows  no  signs  anywhere 
of  passing  over  either  into  the  Caucasian  or  the  Negro  type. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  if  the  fact  of  fertile  inter-crossing  is  to 
be  taken  as  proving  the  unity  of  the  human  race  and  their  probable 
descent  from  a  common  ancestor,  and  we  are  to  assume  that  all  the 
great  varieties  which  we  find  existing  are  the  result  of  modifications 
gradually  introduced  by  climate  and  surrounding  circumstances,  it 
is  evident  that  the  point  of  divergence  must  be  put  at  an  immense 
distance. 

This  is  the  more  certain,  as  when  we  look  back  for  a  period  of 
more  then  4,000  years,  we  find  from  the  Egyptian  monuments  that 
some  of  the  best-marked  existing  types  have  undergone  no  sensible 
change.  The  portraits  of  negroes  and  of  Semitic  dark-whites  painted 
on  the  walls  of  temples  and  tombs  of  the  12th  dynasty,  about  2,000 
B.C.,  might  be  taken  as  characteristic  portraits  of  the  negro  and  Jew 
of  the  present  day,  and  the  modern  Egyptian  fellah  reproduces  with 
little  or  no  change  the  features  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  of  the  days 
of  Kameses  and  Arnenophis.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  where  no 
great  change  has  taken  place  from  crossing  of  races,  they  will  main- 
tain their  special  characters  unaltered  for  more  than  100  generations. 
Indeed  we  might  say  for  200  generations,  for  the  statues  and  wooden 
statuettes  from  the  tombs  of  Sakkara,  the  ancient  Memphis,  which 
certainly  date  back  for  more  than  5,000  years,  show  us  the  Egyptian 
type  in  its  highest  perfection,  and  with  a  more  intellectual  and  I 
might  say  modern  expression  than  is  found  1,000  or  2,000  years 
later,  when  the  type  of  the  higher  classes  had  evidently  deteriorated 
somewhat  from  a  slight  infusion  of  African  elements. 

The  same  conclusion  of  the  great  distance  at  which  any  common 
point  of  divergence  of  the  various  races  of  mankind  must  be  "placed,  is 
confirmed  by  a  totally  different  line  of  inquiry,  that  into  the  origin  of 
language. 

Philologists  have  clearly  proved  that  languages  did  not  spring 
into  existence  ready  made,  like  Minerva  from  the  brain  of  Jupiter,  but 
have  followed  the  general  law  of  Nature,  and  have  had  their  periods  of 
birth,  growth,  and  evolution  from  simple  into  complex  organism. 
Now  there  is  a  vast  variety  of  languages,  some  say  more  than  a  thou- 
sand. A  large  proportion  of  these  are,  of  course,  only  what  may  be 
called  dialects  of  the  same  original  language,  as  in  the  case  of  the 


100      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

whole  Indo-European  family,  including  Sanscrit,  Zend,  Greek,  Latin, 
Teutonic,  Celtic,  and  Slavonic,  with  all  their  offshoots  and  derived 
branches,  as  well  as1  many  others.  These  can  be  all  traced  back  to. 
the  common  root  of  the  primitive  language  of  an  Aryan  white  race, 
who  radiated  by  successive  migrations  from  some  region  in  the 
elevated  plateaux  of  Central  Asia.  Any  one  who  wants  to  be  con- 
vinced of  this  has  only  to  refer  to  Max  Mtiller's  works  and  trace  the 
history  of  one  verb,  viz.,  that  used  to  denote  individual  existence. 

Asmi  in  Sanscrit  has  become  eimi  in  Greek,  sum  in  Latin  (whence 
sono,  suis,  and  all  the  modern  derivatives  of  Latin  races),  and  "am" 
in  English;  while  the  Latin  eat,  the  Greek  esti,  and  the  German  ist, 
are  clearly  akin  to  the  original  osti.  It  may  help  in  understanding 
how  language  has  been  formed  if  we  point  out  that  "I  am"  originally 
meant  "I  breathe,"  and  "he  is "  is  the  more  general  and  abstract  form 
of  "he  stands." 

But  there  are  a  number  of  languages  between  which  no  such 
relationship  can  be  traced,  which  are  constructed  on  radically  different 
principles,  and  have  no  resemblance  with  one  another  in  their  roots, 
or  primitive  sounds  used  to  express  objects  and  simple  ideas,  except  in 
the  few  cases  where  it  can  be  traced  to  importation  from  abroad,  or  to 
imitation  of  naturally  suggested  sounds,  such  as  those  which  have  led 
so  many  nations  to  express  the  idea  of  "mother"  by  a  sound  resem- 
bling the  bleating  of  a  lamb.  Obviously,  similarity  of  sound  in  such 
words  as  are  used  for  the  ideas  of  father,  mother,  cow,  crow,  thunder, 
crack,  splash,  and  so  on,  suggests  no  common  origin,  and  as  most,  or 
at  any  rate  a  great  many  roots,  were  probably  derived  originally  in 
this  manner,  though  long  since  diverted  to  express  other  ideas  by 
associations  which  it  is  impossible  to  trace,  the  wonder  rather  is  that 
we  should  find  so  many  languages  with  so  few  roots  in  common.  The 
best  authorities  tell  us  that  a  list  of  fifty  to  one  hundred  languages 
could  be  made  of  which  no  one  has  been  satisfactorily  shown  to  be 
related  to  any  other. 

The  main  distinction  between  languages,  however,  is  to  be  found 
in  their  inner  mechanism,  or  grammar,  rather  than  in  the  mere  dif- 
ference of  root- sounds.  The  result  of  years  of  mechanical  training  in 
barbarous  Latin  and  Greek  grammars  in  our  English  public  schools 
has  been  to  leave  the  average  Englishman  completely  ignorant  of  the 
real  meaning  of  the  word  "grammar,"  and  almost  incapable  of  com- 
prehending that  it  can  mean  anything  else  than  a  string  of  arbitrary 
rules  to  be  learned  by  heart  for  the  vexation  of  small  boys. 

And  yet  grammar  is  really  most  interesting,  as  showing  the  modes 
by  which  the  dawning  human  intellect  has  proceeded,  at  remote  peri- 
ods and  among  different  races,  in  working  out  the  great  problem  of 
articulate  speech,  by  which  man  rises  into  the  higher  regions  of 
thought  and  is  mainly  distinguished  from  the  brute  creation.  Con- 
sider first  what  the  problem  is,  and  then  some  of  the  principal  modes 
which  have  been  invented  to  solve  it. 

Suppose  some  primitive  race  to  have  accumulated  a  certain  stock 
of  root-words,  or  simple  sounds  to  signify  definite  objects  and  simple 
ideas,  they  must  soon  find  that  these  alone  are  not  sufficient  to  convey 
briefly  and  clearly  to  other  minds  the  ideas  which  they  wish  to 
express.  For  instance,  suppose  a  tribe  had  got  root-words  to  express 
the  ideas  of  "man,"  "bear,"  and  "kill."  What  one  of  the  tribe  wants 
to  convey  from  his  own  mind  to  that  of  his  neighbor  may  be,  " 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  101 


man  has  killed  the  bear,"  or  "  The  bear  has,  killed,  the/n^n/'  or 
(or  "A)  man  has  killed  a  bear,"  or  "  bears,"  or  "  will  "  or  "  may  have  " 
killed,  and  so  on  through  a  vast  number  of  variations  on  the  original 
three-note  theme.  Up  to  a  certain  point,  a  man  might  succeed  in 
making  himself  understood  by  using  his  three  root-sounds  in  a  certain 
order,  aided  by  the  pantomime  of  accent  and  gesture;  and  the 
Chinese,  though  one  of  the  oldest  civilized  peoples  of  the  wo^rld,  have 
scarcely  got  beyond  this  stage.  But  the  process  would  be  difficult 
and  uncertain,  and  at  length  it  would  occur  to  some  genius  that  such 
modifications  as  those  of  definite  and  indefinite,  past  and  present, 
singular  and  plural,  etc.,  were  of  general  application,  not  to  the  par- 
ticular three  or  four  roots  which  he  wished  to  connect,  but  to  all  roots. 
The  next  step  would  be  to  invent  a  set  of  sounds  which,  attached  in 
some  way  to  the  root-sounds,  should  convey  to  the  hearer  the  sense  in 
which  it  was  intended  that  he  should  take  them. 

This  is  the  fundamental  idea  of  grammar,  but  it  has  been  worked 
out  by  different  races  in  the  most  different  manner.  The  Chinese  and 
other  allied  races  in  the  South-east  of  Asia,  such  as  the  Burmese  and 
Siamese,  have  solved  it  in  the  simplest  manner.  Their  languages  are 
what  is  called  monosyllabic  —  that  is,  each  word  consists  of  a  single 
syllable,  and  is  a  root  expressing  the  fundamental  idea,  without  dis- 
tinction of  noun  from  verb,  active  from  passive,  or  other  modifications. 
They  have  to  trust,  therefore,  to  express  their  meaning,  mainly  to 
syntax,  or  the  order  in  which  words  succeed  one  another,  which,  up  to 
a  certain  point,  is  the  simplest  method,  and  is  largely  adopted  in 
modern  English.  Thus,  "Man  kill  bear,"  "Bear  kill  man,"  convey  the 
meaning  just  as  clearly  as  the  classical  languages  do  by  cases,  when 
they  distinguish  whether  the  man  is  the  killer  or  the  killed  by  saying 
homo  or  hominem.  But  the  monosyllabic  system  limits  the  nations 
who  use  it  to  an  inconveniently  small  number  of  words,  and  fails  in 
expressing  their  more  complex  relations,  so  that  we  find  the  same  word 
in  Chinese  or  Siamese  often  expressing  the  most  different  ideas,  and  the 
meaning  can  only  be  conveyed  by  supplementing  the  root-words  and 
syntax  by  accent  and  other  conventional  signs  which  are  akin  to  the 
primitive  devices  of  gesture  language.  Thus,  in  Siamese,  the  syllable 
ha,  according  to  the  note  in  which  it  is  intoned,  may  mean  a  pestilence, 
the  number  five,  or  the  verb  "  to  seek." 

This  very  primitive  and  almost  infantine  form  of  language  is 
confined  to  one  family,  that  of  the  Chinese  and  Indo-Chinese,  who,  it 
may  be  observed,  are  by  no  means  simple  or  primitive  in  other  respects, 
but  stand  and  have  stood  for  centuries  at  a  comparatively  high  level  of 
civilization.  All  other  raqes,  including  the  most  savage,  have  adopted 
some  form  or  other  of  grammar,  i.e  ,  of  modifying  original  root-sounds 
by  additional  generic  sounds  of  definite  determination;  but  the  devices 
•on  which  they  have  hit  for  this  purpose  are  most  various.  Thus,  the 
grammar  of  the  Aryan  family  of  languages  has  been  formed  by  reasoning 
out  such  general  categories  of  thought  as  articles,  pronouns,  and  prep- 
ositions, coining  sounds  for  them  and  prefixing  these  sounds  to  the 
root-sounds  as  separate  determinating  signs.  More  complex  shades  of 
meaning  are  conveyed  principally  by  inflections,  i.e.,  by  adding  certain 
generic  new  sounds  to  the  the  original  root-word,  and  incorporating 
them  with  it  so  as  to  form  modifications  which  are  a  sort  of  secondary 
words.  Thus  the  ideas  of  present,  past,  and  future  love,  loving,  and 
being  loved,  lovely,  and  so  on,  are  formed  by  transforming  the  root 


102      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 


'•  sucli.  t~  mpciifmajioiis  «  as  amor,  amavi,  ctmabo, 
amabilis,  etc.  We  can  see  this  process  in  the  course  of  formation  in. 
the  change  which  converted  the  old  English  form  "  Caesar  his  "  into 
the  modern  genitive  "Caesar's." 

Other  families  again  obtain  the  same  Tesults  by  very  different 
processes.  The  Semitic  languages,  for  instance,  including  Hebrew, 
Arabic,  Assyrian,  and  Phoenician,  are  what  is  called  "  triliteral,"  i.e. 
they  consist  of  roots  mostly  of  three  consonants,  and  express  different 
shades  of  grammatical  meaning  by  altering  the  internal  vowels.  Thus 
from  the  root  m-l-k  are  derived  melek,  a  king;  malak,  he  reigned,  and 
so  on. 

The  Turanian  family,  comprising  Huns,  Turks,  Finns,  Lapps,  and 
other  Mongolian  races  of  Northern  Asia,  all  speak  agglutinative 
languages,  i  e.,  languages  in  which  the  root  is  put  first  and  is  followed 
by  suffixes  strung  on  to  it,  but  not  incorporated  with  it  and  remaining 
distinct.  Thus  in  Turkish,  the  root  sev,  to  love,  is  expanded  into 
sevishdirilmedeler,  meaning  "incapable  of  being  brought  to  love  one 
another." 

These  are  only  given  as  specimens  of  some  of  the  most  marked  of 
the  vast  varieties  of  language  which  have  been  examined  and  classified 
by  philologists.  They  suggest  a  great  many  interesting  reflections, 
but  I  confine  myself  to  those  which  bear  more  immediately  on  the  sub- 
ject of  man's  origin  and  development.  It  is  evident  that  they  imply 
great  antiquity  for  the  existence,  not  of  man  only,  but  of  separate 
races  of  men  speaking  separate  languages. 

Babylonian  inscriptions,  quite  4,000  years  old,  show  that  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  Aryan  and  Semitic  languages  were  as 
clearly  established  then  as  they  are  now;  and  the  hieroglyphics  of 
Egyptian  monuments,  1,000  years  older,  show  the  Coptic  language 
essentially  the  same. as  modern  Coptic,  and  although  presenting  some 
points  of  analogy  with  Semitic,  too  different  to  be  classed  with  it. 
If  these  are  descended  from  a  common  ancestor,  clearly  their  origin, 
must  be  extremely  remote.  And  even  with  unlimited  time  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  how  such  radical  differences  in  the  structure  of  lan- 
guages could  have  arisen  unless  the  different  races  had  branched  off 
before  any  clear  form  of  articulate  speech  had  become  fixed.  Could 
a  race  accustomed  for  generations  to  the  free-flowing  inflectional 
Aryan,  have  deserted  it  for  the  cramped  forms  of  the  Semitic,  or  vice 
versd,  could  the  Semite  have  adopted  the  modes  of  thought  and 
expression  of  Sanscrit?  And  the  same  difficulty  would  apply  in  at  least 
twenty  or  thirty  cases  of  other  families  of  language. 

It  must  be  recollected  that  language  is  not  merely  the  conven- 
tional instrument  of  thought,  but  to  a  great  extent  its  creator,  and 
the  mould  in  which  it  is  cast.  The  mould  may  be  broken,  and  races 
abandon  old  and  adopt  new  languages  by  force  of  external  circum- 
stances, such  as  conquest  or  contact  with  and  absorption  by  superior 
races,  but  there  is  no  instance  of  its  being  so  transformed  from  within 
as  to  pass  into  a  totally  different  type.  Nor  can  we  very  well  see  how 
root-words  once  attached  to  fundamental  ideas,  such  for  instance  as. 
the  simpler  numerals,  should  come  to  be  forgotten  and  new  and  totally 
different  words  invented. 

Of  course,  the  explanation  was  easy  in  the  olden  days,  when 
everything  was  referred  to  miracle.  Languages  were  different  because 
God  had  made  them  so,  to  baffle  the  attempt  of  united  mankind  to 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  103 

build  a  tower  high  enough  to  reach  to  heaven.  But  the  theory  of 
special  miraculous  creation  for  each  language  cannot  stand  a  moment's 
investigation. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  animal  world,  special  creations,  if  admitted 
at  all,  must  be  multiplied  to  an  extent  which  becomes  absurd.  Is 
every  petty  tribe  of  savages  who  speak  a  language  unintelligible  to 
others  to  be  supposed  to  have  had  it  conferred  upon  it  as  a  miracu- 
lous gift?  Was  the  language  of  the  extinct  Brazilian  tribe,  of  which 
Humboldt  tells  us  that  a  very  old  parrot  spoke  the  last  surviving 
words,  one  of  the  languages  used  to  scatter  the  builders  of  the  Tower 
of  Babel?  Or,  still  more  conclusively,  where  we  know  and  can  prove 
that  one  part  of  a  language  is  the  product  of  natural  laws,  can  we 
assume  that  another  part  of  the  same  language  is  the  result  of  miracle? 
Did  it  require  Divine  inspiration  to  make  the  old  Egyptians  call  a  cat 
miaou,  or  to  teach  so  many  nations  to  express  the  idea  of  mother  by 
imitating  the  bleating  of  a  lamb?  If  not,  why  should  half  the  words 
in  a  dictionary  be  miraculous  and  half  natural? 

And  if  Caesar  is  correctly  reported  to  have  been  more  proud  of 
discovering  a  new  case  than  of  conquering  Gaul,  ought  we  not  to  tk  ren- 
der unto  Caesar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's,"  and  assign  grammar  as  well 
as  words  to  human  invention?  In  short,  no  reasonable  man  who  studies 
the  subject  can  doubt  that  language  is  just  as  much  a  machine  of 
human  invention  for  communicating  thought,  as  the  spinning  jenny 
is  for  spinning  cotton. 

The  general  conclusion,  then,  to  be  drawn  from  the  study  of 
language  points  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  all  other  branches  of 
science,  viz.,  that  their  true  history  is  that  of  evolution  from  simple 
origins  by  the  operation  of  natural  laws  over  long  periods  of  time 
into  forms  of  greater  complexity  and  higher  development.  What 
language  really  does  for  us  is  to  take  up  the  thread  where  the  oldest 
history  fails  us,  and  show  that  even  at  this  date  it  is  impossible  to 
doubt  that  the  human  race  must  have  been  already  in  existence  for  a 
very  long  period,  and  in  existence  as  at  the  present  day  in  several 
sharply  distinguished  varieties,  so  that  the  common  origin,  if  there 
be  one,  must  be  placed  still  further  back.  As  history  verified  by  the 
Egyptian  monuments  extends  over  a  period  of  nearly  7,000  years, 
this  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  such  a  period  can  only  b£  a  Tery 
small  part  of  the  total  time  which  has  elapsed  since  man  became  an 
inhabitant  of  the  earth. 

The  origin  and  development  of  religions  have  been  much  dis- 
cussed, but  too  often  with  a  desire  to  make  theories  square  with 
wishes.  The  subject  also  does  not  admit  of  such  precise  determina- 
tion as  in  treating  of  arts  and  languages,  which  have  left  traces  of 
themselves  in  the  form  of  primitive  implements  and  primitive  roots. 

The  history  of  religions  really  begins  with  written  records,  or  at 
the  earliest  with  the  older  myths  which  are  embodied  in  these  records. 
But  these  are  all  comparatively  modern,  and  imply  a  considerable 
progress  in  civilization  before  they  could  have  existed.  If  we  wish 
to  form  some  idea  of  what  may  have  been  the  primitive  elements  from 
which  religion  was  evolved,  during  the  long  Neolithic  and  still  longer 
Palaeolithic  periods  which  preceded  history,  we  must  look  at  what  are 
actually  the  religious  ideas  of  contemporary  savage  and  semi-barbarous 
races. 

At  the  very  lowest  stage  of  savagery  we  find  races  like  the  Aus- 


104      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

tralians,  the  Bushmen,  the  Mincopies,  and  the  Fuegians,  -who  cannot 
be  said  to  have  any  religion  at  all,  or  at  the  most  some  vague  ideas 
of  ghosts  and  spirits.  The  Mincopies  of  the  Andaman  Islands,  who 
are  considered  by  Professor  Owen  as  "perhaps  the  most  primitive, 
or  lowest  in  the  scale  of  civilization,  of  the  human  race,"  are  reported 
by  Dr.  Mowatt  to  have  "no  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being,  no  religion,  nor 
any  belief  in  a  future  state  of  existence."  Sir  J.  Lubbock  says  of  the 
Australians  that  "  they  have  no  religion,  nor  any  idea  of  prayer; 
but  most  of  them  believe  in  evil  spirits,  and  all  have  great  dread  of 
witchcraft." 

As  we  rise  above  this  level  of  the  lowest  savagery  we  find  •  ideas 
of  religion  beginning  to  grow  from  two  main  tap-roots.  The  first  is 
the  idea  of  ghosts  or  spirits,  which  arises  naturally  from  dreams  and 
visions  and  develops  itself  into  ancestor  and  hero-worship,  and  belief 
in  a  world  of  spirits,  good  and  evil,  influencing  men's  lives  and  for- 
tunes, and  in  many  forms  of  sickness  taking  possession  of  their  bodies. 
This  spirit-worship  also  necessarily  leads  to  some  dim  perception  of  a 
future  life. 

The  other  tap-root  is  the  inevitable  disposition  to  account  for  the 
phenomena  of  nature,  when  men  first  began  to  reflect  on  them,  by  the 
agency  of  invisible  beings  like  themselves;  in  other  words,  of  anthropo- 
morphic gods.  This  is  a  higher  and  later  stage  of  religions  belief  than 
the  former,  for  it  implies  a  certain  disposition  to  inquire  into  the 
causes  of  things  and  a  certain  amount  of  reasoning  power  to  infer  like 
causes  from  like  results. 

But  the  two  often  blend  together,  as  in  the  religions  of  the  Aryan 
race,  in  which  we  see  deified  heroes  and  ancestors  crowding  the  courts 
of  Olympus,  with  a  multitude  of  anthropomorphic  gods,  who  are  often 
merely  obvious  personifications  of  natural  phenomena  or  astronomical 
myths.  Thus  Varuna,  Ouranos,  or  Uranus,  are  personifications  of  the 
vault  of  heaven;  Phoebus,  the  shining  one,  of  the  sun;  Aurora,  of  the 
dawn;  while  Hercules  is  half  deified  hero  and  half  solar  myth.  Some- 
times, however,  of  the  two  stems  of  religion  one  only  has  flourished, 
and  the  other  has  either  never  existed,  or  been  overshadowed  by  the 
first  and  relegated  to  a  lower  sphere.  Thus  the  great  Chinese  civili- 
zation, comprising  such  a  large  portion  of  the  human  race,  has  appar- 
ently developed  its  religion  entirely  from  the  idea  of  spirits  and  spirit- 
worship.  The  worship  of  ancestors  is  its  main  feature,  and  its  sacred 
books  are,  in  effect,  treatises  on  ethics  and  political  economy,  with  rules 
for  rites  and  ceremonies  to  enforce  decent  and  decorous  behavior, 
rather  than  what  we  should  call  works  of  religion.  There  is  no  trace 
of  a  conception  of  anthropomorphic  gods  in  the  genuine  national 
Chinese  religion  from  Confucius  downwards;  and  even  the  introduc- 
tion of  Buddhism  has  done  little  but  add  the  deified  hero,  Buddha,  to 
the  list  of  divine  ancestors  and  give  more  definite  shape  to  various 
vague  superstitions.  In  like  manner  the  whole  Buddhist  world  can 
hardly  be  said  to  recognize  anything  beyond  their  incarnate  hero, 
except  a  Nirvana  or  metaphysical  abstraction,  rather  than  a  personal 
deity. 

With  other  races  again,  and  specially  the  Hebrew,  the  idea  of  a 
tribal' anthropomorphic  God  has  gradually  swallowed  up  that  of  other 
gods,  developed  into  that  of  one  Almighty  Being,  and  dwarfed  that  of 
ghosts  and  spirits.  The  primitive  Hebrews,  indeed,  carried  this  so 
far  as  to  exclude  all  ideas  of  a  future  life  from  their  religious  system. 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  105 

Their  primitive  God,  however,  was  strictly  anthropomorphic,  and 
modelled  on  the  idea  of  an  Oriental  sultan — sometimes  good  and  benefi- 
cent, but  sometimes  cruel  and  capricious,  and  above  all  jealous  of  any 
disrespect  and  enraged  by  any  disobedience.  Morality  seems  at  first 
to  have  had  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  these  conceptions,  and  there  is 
not  the  remotest  trace  in  the  early  history  of  any  religion,  of  its  hav- 
ing been  born  ready-made  from  the  necessary  intuition  of  one  Almighty 
God  of  love,  mercy,  and  justice,  which  is  so  confidently  assumed  by 
many  metaphysicians  and  theologians.  On  the  contrary,  conscience 
had  to  be  first  evolved,  and  the  process  may  be  followed  step  by  step 
by  which,  as  manners  became  milder  and  ideas  purer,  the  grosser 
attributes  of  Deity  were  gradually  purged  off,  and  the  idea  of  a  just 
and  merciful  God  was  evolved  from  barbaric  elements. 

These  considerations,  however,  lead  us  far  from  the  question  of 
the  first  dawn  of  religion  among  primitive  man.  Judging  from  the 
earliest  facts  of  history,  and  the  analogy  of  modern  savage  races, 
where  we  might  look  for  the  first  traces  of  religious  ideas  would  be 
from  the  contents  of  tombs  and  from  idols.  When  a  tribe  had  attained 
to  some  definite  idea  of  a  future  life  it  would  almost  certainly  bury 
weapons  and  implements  with  its  dead,  as  is  the  case  with  modern 
savages.  When  it  had  reached  the  stage  of  worshipping  anthro- 
pomorphic deities,  it  would  probably  frame  images  of  them,  some  of 
which  would  be  found  in  their  tombs  and  dwellings. 

The  latter  test  soon  fails  us.  In  the  early  Egyptian  tombs,  and 
in  the  remains  of  the  prehistoric  cities  excavated  by  Dr.  Schliemann, 
images  of  owl  and  ox-headed  goddesses,  and  other  symbolical  figures 
or  idols,  are  found  in  abundance.  But  when  we  ascend  into  Neolithic 
times,  such  idols  are  no  longer  found,  or,  if  found,  it  is  so  rarely  that 
archaeologists  still  dispute  as  to  their  existence.  Certain  crescents 
found  in  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings  were  at  one  time  thought  to  indicate 
a  worship  of  the  moon,  but  the  better  opinion  seems  to  be  that  they 
were  used  as  rests  for  the  head  during  sleep,  as  we  find  similar  objects 
now  used  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Among  the  many  thousand 
objects  recovered  from  these  Swiss  lake-dwellings  and  other  Neolithic 
abodes,  there  are  only  a. very  few  which  may  possibly  have  been  rude 
idols  or  amulets,  and  the  only  ones  which  may  be  said  with  some 
certainty  to  have  been  idols,  are  one  or  two  discovered  by  Mons.  de 
Braye  in  some  artificial  caves  of  the  Neolithic  period,  excavated  in  the 
chalk  of  Champagne,  which  appear  to  be  intended  for  female  figures 
of  life  size  with  heads  somewhat  resembling  that  of  the  owl-headed 
Minerva. 

When  we  pass  to  Palaeolithic  times  the  evidence  of  idols  becomes 
more  faint,  and  rests  solely  on  the  conjecture  that  some  of  the  figures 
carved  by  the  Eeindeer-men  of  La  Madeleine  and  other  caves,  may 
probably  have  been  intended  for  amulets.  As  they  were  such  skilful 
carvers,  and  so  fond  of  drawing  whatever  impressed  itself  on  their 
imagination,  the  presumption  is  strong  that  they  had  not  advanced  to 
the  stage  when  the  worship  of  gods  symbolized  by  idols  had  come  into 
existence,  as  otherwise  more  undoubted  idols  must  have  been  found  in 
the  caves  which  were  so  long  their  habitations,  and  which  have  yielded 
such  a  number  of  remains  of  works  of  art. 

The  evidence  for  a  belief  in  a  future  existence  and  in  spirits  is 
more  conclusive.  Throughout  the  whole  Neolithic  period  we  find 
objects  buried  with  the  dead  which  were  evidently  intended  for  use  in 


106      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

a  future  life.  We  find  also  in  many  Neolithic  tombs  a  singular  fact 
which  points  to  the  existence  of  a  very  long  belief  in  evil  spirits. 
Many  of  the  skulls,  especially  of  young  people,  have  been  trepanned, 
that  is,  a  piece  of  the  skull  has  been  cut  out,  making  a  hole,  apparently 
to  let  out  the  evil  spirit  which  was  supposed  to  be  causing  epilepsy  or 
convulsions;  and  where  the  patient  had  recovered  and  the  wound 
healed,  when  he  died  long  afterwards,  a  piece  of  the  skull,  including 
this  trepanned  portion,  was  sometimes  cut  out  and  used  apparently  as 
an  amulet.  The  objects  deposited  in  graves  show  that  the  idea  of  a 
future  life  was,  as  with  most  savages  of  the  present  day,  that  of  a 
continuation  of  the  same  life  as  he  had  led  here,  though  perhaps  in 
happier  hunting-grounds.  In  some  cases  a  great  chief  seems  to  have 
had  wives  and  slaves  slaughtered  and  buried  with  him,  though  the 
proofs  of  this  are  more  clear  and  abundant  in  later-  prehistoric  times 
than  during  the  Neolithic  period.  Cannibalism,  however,  seems  to 
have  occasionally  prevailed  both  in  Palaeolithic,  Neolithic,  and  pre- 
historic times,  as  it  did  so  extensively  among  modern  savage  races 
before  they  came  under  civilizing  influences.  This  is  clearly  proved 
by  the  number  of  human  bones,  chiefly  of  women  and  young  persons, 
which  have  been  found  charred  by  fire  and  split  open  for  extraction  of 
the  marrow. 

The  evidence  of  belief  in  a  future  life  becomes  more  rare  and 
uncertain  in  Palaeolithic  times.  Perhaps  it  may  be  because  we  have  so 
few  authentic  discoveries  of  Palaeolithic  bury  ing-places,  and  so  many 
instances  of  caves,  once  inhabited  by  Palaeolithic  races,  being  used  long 
afterwards  as  Neolithic  sepulchres.  After  the  famous  cave  of  Aurig- 
nac  it  is  difficult  to  trust  any  evidence  of  the  discovery  of  a  real 
Palaeolithic  sepulchre  which  has  not  been  subsequently  disturbed. 

In  the  few  cases  also  where  Palaeolithic  skeletons  have  been  found, 
as  in  that  of  the  men  of  Neanderthal  and  Mentone,  they  have  often  been 
those  of  single  individuals,  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  they  were 
buried  there,  or  merely  died  in  the  caves  in  which  they  lived,  in  which 
case  any  implements  found  with  them  do  not  necessarily  imply  that 
they  were  placed  there  for  use  in  a  future  life.  On  the  whole  it  seems 
doubtful  whether  any  certain  proofs  of  burials  denoting  knowledge  of  a 
future  life  can  be  found  in  Palaeolithic  times,  and  if  there  are,  they  are 
certainly  few  and  far  between,  and  confined  to  the  later  stages  of  that 
period. 

All  we  can  say  is,  that  religion  certainly  did  not  descend  ready- 
made  among  these  aboriginal  savages,  but  that,  like  language,  it  was 
slowly  developed  from  beginnings  as  rude  as  those  we  now  find  among 
the  lowest  races  of  savages. 

It  may  be  well,  however,  to  say  here,  once  for  all,  what  is  appli- 
cable to  many  other  passages  in  this  book,  that  the  question  of  the 
origin  of  any  religion  is  entirely  different  from  that  of  its  truth  or 
falsehood.  To  explain  a  thing  is  not  to  disprove  it;  on  the  contrary, 
a  thing  only  really  becomes  true  to  us  when  we  understand  it.  A 
stately  oak,  with  wide-spreading  branches,  that  give  shade  and  shelter 
to  the  cattle  of  the  fields,  is  not  the  less  a  fact  because  we  know  that 
it  did  not  drop  ready-made  from  heaven,  but  grew  from  an  acorn. 
The  intrinsic  truth  of  a  religion  must,  be  tested  by  the  conformity 
which,  in  a  given  stage  of  its  evolution,  it  bears  to  the  facts  of  the 
universe  as  disclosed  by  science,  and  to  the  feelings  and  moral  per- 
ceptions which  have  been  equally  developed  by  evolution  in  the 
contemporary  world. 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  107 

All  I  contend  for  is,  that  all  religions  have  grown  and  been 
developed  from  humble  origins,  and  that  their  history,  impartially 
considered,  does  not  contradict,  but  on  the  contrary  greatly  confirms 
the  law  of  natural  evolution. 

Of  the  two  faculties  by  which  man  is  commonly  distinguished 
from  the  brute  creation,  viz.,  that  of  being  the  speaking  and  the  tool- 
making  animal,  the  former  attribute  has  been  shown  to  be  the  product 
of  evolution  from  origins  long  since  lost  in  the  far-off  distance  of 
remote  ages. 

The  same  remark  is  even  more  certainly  true  as  regards  the  other 
attribute  of  tool-making,  or,  in  its  widest  sense,  adapting  natural  laws 
and  natural  objects  to  the  arts  of  life  by  intelligent  application.  The 
primitive  roots,  so  to  speak,  of  this  industrial  language,  which  in  the 
case  of  spoken  language  for  the  most  part  elude  our  search,  are  here 
furnished  by  the  Palaeolithic  remains  found  so  abundantly  in  river 
drifts  and  caves.  There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  modern 
wood-cutter's  axe  and  carpenter's  adze  are  the  lineal  descendants  of 
the  rudely-chipped  hdches,  or  celts,  which  are  dug  out  of  the  gravels  of 
St.  Acheul,  or  from  below  the  stalagmite  of  Kent's  Cavern.  The 
regular  progression  can  be  traced  from  the  mass  of  flint  rudely  chipped 
to  a  point,  with  a  butt-end  left  rough  to  grasp  in  the  hand,  up  to  more 
symmetrical  and  carefully-chipped  forms ;  to  implements  intended  to 
be  hafted  or  fastened  to  a  handle;  to  implements  ground  and  polished 
to  a  sharp  edge  and  pierced  for  the  handle;  and  finally  to  the  finished 
specimens  of  the  later  Neolithic  period,  which  exactly  represent  the 
adze  and  battle-axe,  and  are  almost  identical  with  those  used  quite 
recently  by  the  Polynesians  and  other  semi-civilized  races  who  had  no 
access  to  metals.  From  these  the  transition  to  metals  is  easily  traced, 
the  first  bronze  implements  and  weapons  being  facsimiles  of  those  of 
polished  stone  which  they  superseded,  and  the  gradual  development 
of  bronze,  and  from  bronze  to  the  cheaper  and  more  generally  useful 
metal,  iron,  being  a  matter  of  quite  modern  history. 

In  like  manner,  the  development  of  the  knife,  sword,  and  all 
cutting  instruments,  from  the  primitive  flint  flake,  can  be  traced  step 
by  step,  and  is  beyond  doubt;  and  equally  so  the  development  of  all 
missils,  from  the  primitive  chipped  flint,  used  as  a  javelin  or  arrow- 
head, up  to  the  modern  rifle.  When  we  catch  the  first  glimpes  of  the 
beginnings  of  human  art  or  industry,  the  furniture  or  stock-in-trade  of 
Palaeolithic  man  appears  to  have  been  as  follows: 

He  was  acquainted  with  fire.  This  seems  to  be  clearly  established 
by  the  charred  bones,  charcoal,  and  other  traces  of  fire  which  are  found 
in  the  oldest  Palaeolithic  caves,  and  even  in  the  far  distant  Miocene 
period,  if  we  can  believe  in  the  flints  discovered  by  the  Abbe  Bourgeois 
in  the  strata  of  Thenay,  some  of  which  appear  to  have  been  split  by 
the  action  of  fire.  This  is  a  remarkable  fact,  for  a  knowledge  of 
the  means  of  kindling  fire  is  by  no  means  a  very  simple  or  obvious 
attainment.  Apes  and  monkeys  will  sit  before  a  fire  and  enjoy  its 
warmth,  but  no  monkey  has  yet  developed  intelligence  enough  even  to 
put  fresh  sticks  on  to  keep  up  the  fire,  much  less  to  rekindle  it  when 
extinct.  Primeval  man  must  often  have  had  experience  of  fire  from 
natural  causes,  as  from  forests  and  prairies  scorched  by  a  tropical  sun 
being  set  on  fire  by  lightning,  or  from  volcanic  eruptions;  but  how  he 
learned  from  these  to  kindle  fire  for  himself  is  not  so  obvious.  Savage 
races,  as  a  rule,  do  so  by  converting  mechanical  energy  into  heat,  bjr 


108       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

the  friction  of  a  stick  twirled  round  in  a  hole,  or  rubbed  backwards 
and  forwards  in  a  groove  in  another  piece  of  wood;  and  there  are  old 
observances  among  civilized  nations  which  show  that  this  was  the 
mode  practiced  by  their  ancestors,  as  when  the  sacred  fire  in.  the 
Temple  of  Vesta  was  relighted  in  this  manner  by  the  old  Romans  if  it 
had  chanced  to  be  extinguished.  It  is  probable,  therefore,,  that  this 
was  the  original  mode  of  obtaining  fire,  but  if  so,  it  must  have  required 
a  good  deal  of  intelligence  and  observation,  for  the  discovery  is  by  no 
means  an  obvious  one,  nor  is  it  easy  to  see  any  natural  process  that 
might  suggest  it. 

Neither  ancient  history  nor  the  accounts  of  existing  savage  races 
throw  much  light  on  the  question.  The  narratives  of  the  discovery  of 
fire  contained  in  the  oldest  records  are  obviously  mythical,  like  the 
fable  of  Prometheus,  which  is  itself  a  version  of  the  older  Yedic  myth 
of  the  god  Agni  (whence  the  Latin  ignis  or  fire)  having  been  taken  from 
a  casket  and  given  to  the  first  man,  Manou,  by  Pramantha,  which  in 
the  old  Vedic  language  means  taking  forcibly  by  means  of  friction.  Of 
the  same  character  are  the  mythical  legends  of  savage  races  of  fire 
having  been  first  brought  by  some  wonderful  bird  or  animal;  and  there 
is  nowhere  anything  like  an  authentic  tradition  of  the  fact  of  its  first 
introduction.  There  have  been  reports  of  savages  who  were  unac- 
quainted with  fire,  but  they  have  never  been  well  authenticated,  and 
the  nearest  approach  to  such  a  state  of  things  was  probably  furnished 
by  the  aborigines  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  of  whom  it  is  said  that  in 
all  their  wanderings  they  were  particularly  careful  to  bear  in  their 
hands  the  materials  for  kindling  a  fire,  in  the  shape  of  a  firebrand, 
which  it  was  the  duty  of  the  women  to  carry,  and  to  keep  carefully 
refreshed  from  time  to  time  as  it  became  dull. 

On  the  whole,  traditions  all  point  to  fire  having  been  first 
obtained  from  friction,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  first  idea  may  have 
been  derived  from  the  boughs  of  trees,  or  silicious  stalks  of  bamboos, 
having  been  set  on  fire  when  rubbed  together  by  the  action  of  the 
wind. 

It  is  easier  to  see  the  origin  of  the  remaining  equipment  of 
primitive  man,  viz.,  chipped  stones,  for  flints  splintered  by  frost  or 
fire  often  take  naturally  the  forms  of  'sharp-edged  flakes  and  rude 
hatchets  or  hammers,  and  very  little  invention  was  required  to  improve 
these  specimens,  or  endeavor  to  imitate  them  by  artificial  chippings. 
It  is  rather  Surprising  that  this  art  did  not  improve  more  rapidly, 
for  it  is  evident  that  the  old  Palaeolithic  period  must  have  lasted  a 
long  time  before  any  decided  progress  began  to  show  itself.  And 
during  this  long  period  a  singular  uniformity  appears  to  have  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  Palaeolithic  world.  The  rude  form  of  the  celt 
or  hdche,  with  a  blunt  butt  and  chipped  roughly  to  a  point,  is  found 
in  the  oldest  river  gravels  and  caves  wherever  they  have  been 
investigated,  and  the  forms  of  the  Somme  and  the  Thames  are 
repeated  in  the  quartzite  implements  of  the  Madras  laterite. 

In  the  very  oldest  caves  and  river  deposits  the  tool-equipment 
of  man  seems  to  have  been  very  much  limited  to  these  rude  celts,  used 
probably  for  smashing  skulls  in  war  and  the  chase,  and  splitting  bones 
to  get  at  the  marrow ;  sharp-edged  flakes  for  cutting ;  rude  javelin- 
heads  ;  and  stones  chipped  to  a  rounded  edge,  very  like  those  used  by  the 
Esquimaux  for  scraping  bones  and  skins.  As  we  ascend  in  time  we 
find  arrow-heads  of  stone  and  bone,  at  first  unbarbed  and  gradually 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  109 

becoming  barbed,  showing  that  the  bow  had  been  discovered;  harpoons 
of  bone  and  fish-hooks ;  bone  pins  and  needles ;  and  a  much  greater 
variety  and  more  carefully- chipped  forms  of  flint  tools  and  weapons ; 
until  we  finally  reach  the  upper  reindeer  stage  of  caves  like  that  of  La 
Madeleine,  where  artistic  drawings  and  carvings  are  found,  and  the 
equipment  generally  is  superior  to  that  of  many  existing  savage  tribes, 
and  not  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  Esquimaux  and  other  Arctic  races. 

We  then  pass  into  Neolithic  times,  when  many  of  the  chief 
elements  of  civilization  are  already  in  full  force.  Man  has  emerged  in 
many  localities  from  the  hunter  into  the  pastoral  stage,  the  principal 
domestic  animals  are  known,  and  in  some  of  the  later  lake-dwellings 
he  has  advanced  a  stage  further,  and  has  become  an  agriculturist  living 
in  villages.  From  this  to  the  Bronze  and  early  historical  periods,  there 
is  no  great  break,  and  the  ruder  tribes  of  barbarians  described  by 
Caesar  and  Tacitus  may  well  have  been  the  lineal  descendants  of  the 
Neolithic  men  whose  polished  axes  and  finely-shaped  arrow-heads  lie 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  Europe  and  are  found  in  innumerable 
burial-mounds  and  dolmens. 

But  in  Palaeolithic  times,  though  we  can  see  constant  progress, 
mankind  is  still  in  a  state  of  unmitigated  barbarism.  Agriculture  was 
clearly  unknown,  for  the  hand-mills,  pestles,  and  mortars,  which  are 
among  the  most  enduring  and  abundant  relics  where  grain  was  used 
for  food,  are  never  met  with.  Pottery  was  unknown  in  all  the  earlier 
periods,  and  it  is  questionable  whether  even  the  rudest  forms  of  baked 
clay,  moulded  by  hand,  are  found  where  there  is  no  intermixture  of  a 
subsequent  Neolithic  habitation.  The  dog  was  clearly  not  a  companion 
of  man  prior  to  the  era  of  the  Danish  kitchen-middens,  for  the  spongy 
parts  of  bones  which  are  always  gnawed  by  dogs  when  dogs  are  present, 
are  invariably  preserved  in  the  debris  of  Palaeolithic  caves,  and  the  few 
bones  of  dogs,  wolves,  and  foxes  found  with  human  remains  in  these 
caves  almost  always  show  that  the  animals  had  formed  part  of  the 
food  of  the  inhabitants. 

Other  domestic  animals  were,  in  all  probability,  equally  unknown, 
although  it  has  been  thought  possible  that  some  of  the  tribes  of  the 
reindeer,  period  may  have  had  herds  of  the  half-tame  deer,  like  the 
modern  Laplanders.  This  conjecture,  however,  appears  to  rest  solely 
on  the  large  number  of  bones  and  horns  found  at  certain  stations, 
which  may  have  arisen  from  their  having  been  occupied  for  a  very  long 
period,  and  as  the  dog  was  unknown,  it  seems  probable  that  no  other, 
animals  had  been  domesticated. 

As  regards  clothing,  the  first  certain  proofs  of  its  use  are  afforded 
by  the  bone  pins  and  needles,  which  were  evidently  employed  for 
fastening  the  skins  of  animals  together,  and  the  scrapers  were  probably 
used  for  scraping  these  skins  and  fashioning  the  bone  implements.  It 
is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  use  of  skins  as  a  protection  against  the 
cold  of  the  Glacial  period,  was  known  at  a  very  early  period. 

Ornaments,  also,  are  of  very  early  date,  as  pierced  shells,  some- 
times fossil,  and  pierced  teeth  of  the  bear  and  other  animals  are 
frequently  found  under  circumstances  which  show  that  they  must 
have  been  strung  together  as  necklaces.  The  skeleton  found  in  a  cave 
at  Mentone  had  a  number  of  perforated  shells  of  Nassa,  and  a  few 
stag's  teeth  also  perforated,  dispersed  about  the  skull,  so  as  to  show 
that  they  had  formed  some  sort  of  head  ornament.  Lumps  of  red 
hematite,  also,  probably  used  for  paint,  have  been  found  in  some  of 
the  caves  of  the  reindeer  period 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    ARROW. 


PUNT  ARROW  IN  VERTEBRA  OF  REINDEER. 
Palaeolithic.  . .La  Madeleine. 


PALEOLITHIC. 
Mammoth  Period,    Le  Moostier 


PALEOLITHIC. 

Reindeer  Period. 

"First  vestige  of  barb. 


PALEOLITHIC. 
Reindeer  Period. 


PALEOLITHIC. 
.Reindeer  Period, 


NEOLITHIC. 
Denmark, 


NEOLITHIC. 
Ireland. 


NEOLITHIC. 
Denmark. 


RECENT. 
Esquimaux. 


(From  Lnbbock*   ••  rehlstorio  Tim&s.") 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE.  Ill 

Captain  Cook's  description  of  the  savages  of  Tierra  del  Fuego 
would  have  applied  to  them,  that,  "although  content  to  be  naked,  they 
were  very  ambitious  to  be  fine;"  and  probably  like  -these  poor  Fue- 
gians, they  adorned  themselves  with  streaks  of  red,  black,  and  white, 
and  wore  bracelets  and  anklets  of  shell  and  bone. 

If  we  wish  to  form  some  idea  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  our 
Palaeolithic  ancestors,  we  must  look  for  them  among  the  existing 
savage  races,  whose  mode  of  life,  and  equipment  of  tools  and  weapons, 
most  nearly  resemble  those  of  the  earliest  cave-dwellers.  The  Austra- 
lians, the  Bushmen  of  South  Africa,  the  Mincopies  of  the  Andaman 
Islands,  and  the  Fuegians  are  probably  the  lowest  specimens  of  the 
human  race  known  in  modern  times;  but  even  these  are  in  some 
respects  further  advanced  in  the  arts  than  the  first  Palaeolithic  man. 
The  Bushmen  are  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  bow,  and  have  discovered 
the  art  of  poisoning  their  arrows.  The  Australians,  Mincopies,  and 
Fuegians  have  canoes,  harpoons,  and  fish-hooks.  The  latter  approach 
more  nearly  to  the  conditions  of  life  of  the  savages  who  accumulated 
the  kitchen-middens  on  the  coasts  of  Denmark  at  a  much  later  period, 
and  the  Bushmen  probably  represent  better  those  of  the  cave-men  who 
lived  principally  on  the  produce  of  the  chase  of  large  animals,  such  as 
the  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  cave  bear,  horse,  and  deer.  The  pigmy 
Bushman  will  attack  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  even  the  lion, 
and  often  succeed  in  killing  them  by  pitfalls  or  poisoned  arrows. 

The  inferences,  therefore,  to  be  drawn,  alike  from  the  physical 
development  of  the  individual  man,  and  from  the  origin  and  growth  of 
all  the  faculties  which  specialty  distinguish  him  from  the  brute  creation 
— language,  religion,  arts,  and  science — all  point  to  the  conclusion  that 
he  is  a  product  of  laws  of  evolution,  and  not  of  special  or  miraculous 
creation. 

Still,  admitting  this,  we  must  admit  on  the  other  hand,  that  until 
more  of  the  "missing  links"  are  discovered,  and  the  origin  of  man  is 
placed  on  a  basis  of  scientific  certainty,  there  is  an  opening  left  for  the 
belief  that  here,  if  nowhere  else,  there  was  some  supernatural  inter- 
ference with  the  laws  of  Nature,  and  that  the  finger  of  the  clock-maker 
did  here  alter  the  hands  of  the  clock  from  the  position  which  they 
would  have  occupied  under  the  original  law  of  its  construction.  But 
if  this  were  so,  it  must  equally  in  candor  be  admitted  that  the  miracle 
did  not  consist  in  placing  man  and  woman  upon  earth,  at  any  recent 
period,  or  with  faculties  in  any  way  developed,  but  could  only  have 
consisted  in  causing  a  germ  or  germs  to  come  into  existence,  different 
from  any  that  could  have  been  formed  by  natural  evolution,  and  con- 
taining within  them  the  possibilities  of  conscious  and  civilized  man,  to 
be  developed  from  the  rudest  origins  by  slow  and  painful  progress 
over  countless 


MODERN    SCIENCE 

AND 

MODERN     THOUGHT. 


PART  II. 
CHAPTEE  VH. 

MODERN    THOTJGHT. 

LIV. 

Oh  yet  we  trust  that  somehow  good 
Will  be  the  final  goal  of  ill, 
To  pangs  of  nature,  sins  of  will, 

Defects  of  doubt,  and  taints  of  blood  ; 

That  nothing  walks  with  aimless  feet ; 
That  not  one  life  shall  be  destroy'd, 
Or  cast  as  rubbish  to  the  void, 

When  God  hath  made  the  pile  complete ; 

That  not  a  worm  is  cloven  in  vain ; 
That  not  a  moth  with  vain  desire 
Is  shrivel'd  in  a  fruitless  fire, 

Or  but  subserves  another's  gain. 

Behold,  we  know  not  anything. 
I  can  but  trust  that  good  shall  fall 
At  last — far  off — at  last,  to  all, 

And  every  winter  change  to  spring. 

So  runs  my  dream:  but  what  am  I? 
An  infant  crying  in  the  night : 
An  infant  crying  for  the  light : 

And  with  no  language  but  a  cry. 

LV. 

The  wish,  that  of  the  living  whole 
No  life  may  fail  beyond  the  grave, 
Derives  it  not  from  what  we  have 

The  likest  God  within  the  soul  ? 

Are  God  and  Nature  then  at  strife, 
That  Nature  lends  such  evil  dreams 
So  careful  of  the  type  she  seems, 

So  careless  of  the  single  life  ; 


114       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT, 

That  I,  considering  everywhere 
Her  secret  meaning  in  her  deeds. 
And  finding  that  of  fifty  seeds 

She  often  brings  but  one  to  bear, 

I  falter  where  I  firmly  trod, 

And  falling  with  my  weight  of  cares 
Upon  the  great  world's  altar-stairs 

That  slope  thro'  darkness  up  to  God, 

I  stretch  lame  hands  of  faith,  and  grope; 

And  gather  dust  and  chaff,  and  call 

To  what  I  feel  is  Lord  of  all, 
JLnd  faintly  trust  the  larger  hope. 


LVI. 

"  So  careful  of  the  type  ?"  but  no. 

From  scarped  cliff  and  quarried  stone 
She  cries,  "  A  thousand  types  are  gone 
I  care  for  nothing,  all  shall  go. 

"Thou  makest  thine  appeal  to  me  : 

I  bring  to  life,  I  bring  to  death  : 

The  spirit  does  but  mean  the  breath : 
I  know  no  more."     And  he,  shall  he, 

Man,  her  last  work,  who  seem'd  so  fair, 

Such  spendid  purpose  in  his  eyes, 

Who  roll'd  the  psalm  to  wintry  skies, 
Who  built  him  fanes  of  fruitless  prayer, 

Who  trusted  God  was  love  indeed, 

And  love  Creation's  final  law — 

Tho'  Nature,  red  in  tooth  and  claw 
With  ravine,  shriek' d  against  his  creed—- 
Who loved,  who  suffer'd  countless  ills, 

Who  battled  for  the  True,  the  Just, 

Be  blown  about  the  desert  dust, 
Or  seal'd  within  the  iron  hills  ? 

No  more  ?  A  monster  then,  a  dream, 

A  discord.  Dragons  of  the  prime, 

That  tare  each  other  in  their  slime, 
Were  mellow  music  match'd  with  him. 

O  life  as  futile,  then,  as  frail ! 

O  for  thy  voice  to  soothe  and  bless ! 

Whatjiope  of  answer,  or  redress  ? 
Behind  "the  veil,  behind  the  veil. 

TENNYSON,  In  Memoriam. 

(By  kind  permission  O/LOBD  TENNYSON.) 

THESE  noble  and  solemn  lines  of  a  great  poet  sum  up  in  a  few 
words  what  may  be  called  "the  Gospel  of  Modern  Thought." 
They  describe  what  is  the  real  attitude  of  most  of  the  thinking  and 
earnest  minds  of  the  present  generation.  On  the  one  hand,  the  dis- 
coveries of  science  have  so  far  established  the  universality  of  law,  as 
to  make  it  impossible  for  sincere  men  to  retain  the  faith  of  their 
ancestors  in  dogmas  and  miracles.  On  the  other,  larger  views  of  man 
and  of  history  have  shown  that  religious  sentiment  is  an  essential  ele- 
ment of  human  nature,  and  that  many  of  our  best  feelings,  such  as 


MODERN  THOUGHT.  115 

love,  hope,  conscience,  and  reverence,  will  always  seek  to  find  reflec- 
tions of  themselves  in  the  unseen  world.  Hence  faith  has  diminished 
and  charity  increased.  Fewer  believe  old  creeds,  and  those  who  do, 
believe  more  faintly ;  while  fewer  denounce  them,  and  are  insensible  to 
the  good  they  have  done  in  the  past  and  the  truth  and  beauty  of  the 
essential  ideas  that  underlie  them. 

On  the  Continent,  and  especially  in  Catholic  countries,  where 
religion  interferes  more  with  politics  and  social  life,  there  is  still  a 
large  amount  of  active  hostility  to  it,  as  shown  by  the  massacre  of 
priests  by  the  French  Communists ;  but,  in  this  country,  the  old  Vol- 
tairean  infidelity  has  died  out,  and  no  one  of  ordinary  culture  thinks 
of  denouncing  Christianity  as  an  invention  of  priestcraft.  On  the 
contrary,  many  of  our  leading  minds  are  at  the  same  time  sceptical 
and  religious,  and  exemplify  the  truth  of  another  profound  saying  of 
Tennyson: 

There  is  more  faith  in  honest  doubt, 

Believe  me,  than  in  half  the  creeds. 

The  change  which  has  come  over  modern  thought  cannot  be  bet- 
ter exemplified  than  by  taking  the  instance  of  three  great  writers 
whose  works  have  produced  a  powerful  influence — Carlyle,  Kenan,  and 
George  Eliot.  They  were  all  three  born  and  brought  up  in  the  very 
heart  of  different  phases  of  the  old  beliefs — Carlyle,  in  a  family  which 
might  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  best  qualities  of  Scottish  Presbyterian- 
ism,  bred  in  a  West  country  farmhouse,  under  the  eye  of  a  father  and 
mother  whom  he  loved  and  revered,  who  might  have  been  the  origi- 
nals of  Burns' "Cotter's  Saturday  Night,"  or  the  descendants  of  the 
martyrs  of  Claverhouse.  His  own  temperament  strongly  inclined  to  a 
stern  Puritanical  piety ;  his  favorite  heroes  were  Cromwell  and  John 
Knox ;  his  whole  nature  was  antipathetic  to  science.  As  his  biogra- 
pher, Froude,  reports  of  him,  "He  liked  ill  men  like  Humboldt, 
Laplace,  and  the  author  of  the  'Vestiges.'  He  refused  Darwin's  trans- 
mutation of  species  as  unproved  ;  he  fought  against  it,  though  I  could 
see  he  dreaded  that  it  might  turn  out  true."  And  yet  the  delibrate 
conclusion  at  which  he  arrived  was  that  "He  did  not  think  it  possible 
that  educated  honest  men  could  even  profess  much  longer  to  believe 
in  historical  Christianity." 

The  case  of  Kenan  was  equally  remarkable.  He  was  bom  in  the 
cottage  of  Breton  peasants  of  the  purest  type  of  simple,  pious, 
Catholic  faith.  Their  one  idea  of  rising  above  the  life  of  a  peasant 
was  to  become  a  priest,  and  their  great  ambition  for  their  boy  was  that 
he  might  be  so  far  honored  as  one  day  to  become  a  country  cure. 
Young  Kenan,  accordingly,  from  the  first  day  he  showed  cleverness, 
and  got  to  the  top  of  his  class  in  the  village  school,  was  destined  for 
the  priesthood.  He  was  taken  in  hand  by  priests,  and  found  in  them 
his  kindest  friends ;  they  sent  him  to  college,  and  in  due  time  to  the 
Central  Seminary  where  young  men  were  trained  for  orders.  All  his 
traditions,  all  his  affections,  all  his  interests,  led  in  that  direction,  and 
yet  he  gave  up  everything  rather  than  subscribe  to  what  he  no  longer 
believed  to  be  true.  His  conversion  was  brought  about  in  this  way. 
Having  been  appointed  assistant  to  a  prof essor'of  Hebrew  he  became 
a  profound  scholar  in  Oriental  languages ;  this  led  to  his  studying  the 
Scriptures  carefully  in  the  original,  and  the  conclusion  forced  itself 
upon  him  that  the  miraculous  part  of  the  narrative  had  no  historical 
foundation.  Like  Carlyle,  the  turn  of  his  mind  was  not  scientific,  and 


116      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  'MODERN  THOUGHT. 

while  denying  miracles  he  remained  keenly  appreciative  of  all  that  was 
beautiful  and  poetical  in  the  life  and  teaching  of  Jesus,  which  he  has 
brought  more  vividly  before  the  world  in  his  writings  than  had  ever 
been  done  by  orthodox  commentators. 

George  Eliot,  again,  was  brought  up  in  yet  another  phase  of 
orthodox  Christianity — that  of  middle-class  nonconformist  Evangeli- 
calism. She  embraced  this  creed  fervently,  and,  as  we  see  in  her 
"  Dinah,"  retained  a  keen  appreciation  of  all  its  best  elements.  But 
as  her  intellect  expanded  and  her  knowledge  widened,  she  too  found 
it  impossible  to  rest  in  the  old  belief,  and,  with  a  painful  wrench  from 
a  revered  father  and  loving  friends,  she  also  passed  over  from  the 
ranks  of  orthodoxy.  She  also,  after  a  life  of  profound  and  earnest 
thought,  came  to  the  conclusion  recorded  of  her  by  an  intimate  friend 
and  admirer,  Mr.  Myers/ 

"I  remember  how  at  Cambridge,  I  walked  with  her  once  in  the 
Fellows'  Garden  of  Trinity,  on  an  evening  of  rainy  May;  and  she,  stirred 
somewhat  beyond  her  wont,  and  taking  as  her  text  the  three  words 
which  have  been  used  so  often  as  the  inspiring  trumpet-calls  of  men — 
the  words  God,  Immortality,  Duty — pronounced,  with  terrible  earnest- 
ness, how  inconceivable  was  iketfirst,  how  unbelievable  the  second,  and 
yet  how  peremptory  and  absolute  the  third.  Never,  perhaps,  had 
sterner  accents  affirmed  the  law  of  sovereignty  of  impersonal  and  unrec- 
ompensing  law.  I  listened,  and  night  fell ;  her  grave,  majestic  counte- 
nance turned  toward  me  like  a  Sibyl's  in  the  gloom ;  it  was  as  though  she 
withdrew  from  my  grasp,  one  by  one,  the  two  scrolls  of  promise,  and 
left  me  the  third  scroll  only,  awful  with  inevitable  fates." 

Such  instances  as  these  cannot  be  the  result  of  mere  accident. 
As  long  as  scepticism  was  confined  to  a  limited  number  of  scientific  men 
it  might  be  possible  to  think  that  it  wras  merely  the  exaggeration  of  a 
particular  train  of  thought  pursued  too  exclusively.  But  when  science 
has  become  the  prevailing  mode  of  thought,  and  has  been  brought 
home  to  the  minds  of  all  educated  persons,  it  is  no  longer  possible  to 
represent  it  as  an  exceptional  aberration.  And  where  the  bell-wether's 
of  thought  lead  the  way  the  flock  will  follow.  What  the  greatest 
thinkers  think  to-day,  the  mass  of  thinkers  will  think  to-morrow,  and 
the  great  army  of  non-thinkers  will  assume  to  be  self-evident  the  day 
after.  This  is  very  nearly  the  case  at  the  present  day ;  the  great 
thinkers  have  gone  before,  the  mass  of  thinkers  have  followed,  and  the 
still  greater  mass  of  non-thinkers  are  wavering  and  about  to  follow. 
It  is  no  longer,  with  those  who  think  at  all,  a  question  of  absolute  faitli 
against  absolute  disbelief,  but  of  the  more  or  less  shade  of  u  faintness" 
with  which  they  cling  to  the  "larger  hope." 

Tliis  is  nowhere  more  apparent  than  in  the  writings  of  those  who 
attempt  to  stem  the  tide  which  sets  so  strongly  against  orthodoxy. 
They  resolve  themselves  mainly  into  one  long  wail  of  "  oh  the  pity  of 
it,  the  pity  of  it!"  if  the  simple  faith  of  olden  times  should  disappear 
from  the  world.  They  show  eloquently  and  conclusively  that  science 
and  philosophy  cannot  satisfy  the  aspirations  or  afford  the  consolations 
of  religion.  They  expose  the  hollowness  of  the  substitutes  which  have 
been  proposed,  such  as  the  worship  of  the  unknowable,  or  the  cult  of 
humanity.  They  win  an  easy  triumph  over  the  exaggerations  of  those 
who  resolve  all  the  historical  records  of  Christianity  into  myths  or 
fabulous  fulfilment  of  prophecies,  and  they  wage  fierce  battles  over 
minor  points,  as  whether  the  first  quotations  from  the  Gospels  are  met 


MODERN  THOUGHT.  117 

with  in  the  first  or  second  half  of  the  second  century.  But  they  nowhere 
attempt  to  grapple  with  the  real  difficulties,  and  show  that  the  facts 
and  arguments  which  converted  men  like  Carlyle  and  Renan  are 
mistaken  facts  and  unsound  arguments.  Attempts  to  harmonize  the 
Gospels  and  to  prove  the  inspiration  of  writings  which  contain  mani- 
fest errors  and  contradictions,  have  gone  the  way  of  Buckland's  proof 
of  a  universal  deluge,  and  of  Hugh  Miller's  attempt  to  reconcile  Noah's 
ark  and  the  Genesis  account  of  creation  with  the  facts  of  geology  and 
astronomy.  Not  an  inch  of  ground  that  has  been  conquered  by  science 
has  ever  been  reconquered  in  fair  fight  by  theology. 

This  great  scientific  movement  is  of  comparatively  recent  date. 
Darwin's  "Origin  of  Species  "was  only  published  in  1859,  and  his 
views  as  to  evolution,  development,  natural  selection,  and  the  prevalence 
of  universal  law,  have  already  annexed  nearly  the  whole  world  of  modern 
thought  and  become  the  foundation  of  all  philosopical  speculation  and 
scientific  inquiry. 

Not  only  has  faith  been  shaken  in  the  supernatural  as  a  direct  and 
immediate  agent  in  the  phenomena  of  the  worlds  of  matter  and  of  life, 
but  the  demonstration  of  the  "struggle  for  life"  and  "  survival  of  the 
fittest "  has  raised  anew,  and  with  vastly  augmented  force,  those  ques- 
tions as  to  the  moral  constitution  of  the  universe  and  the  origin  of 
evil,  which  have  so  long  exercised  the  highest  minds.  Is  it  true  that 
"love"  is  "Creation's  final  law,"  when  we  find  this  enormous  and 
apparently  prodigal  waste  of  life  going  on ;  these  cruel  internecine 
battles  between  individuals  and  species  in  the  struggle  for  existence; 
this  cynical  indifference  of  Nature  to  suffering  ?  There  are,  approxi- 
mately, 3,600  millions  of  deaths  of  human  beings  in  every  century,  of 
whom  at  least  20  per  cent.,  or  720  millions,  die  before  they  have  attained 
to  clear  self-consciousness  and  conscience.  What  becomes  of  them  ? 
"Why  were  they  born  ?  Are  they  Nature's  failures,  and  "  cast  as  rubbish 
to  the  void?" 

To  such  questions  there  is  no  answer.  We  are  obliged  to  admit 
that  as  the  material  universe  is  not,  as  we  once  fancied,  measured  by 
our  standards  and  regulated  at  every  turn  by  an  intelligence  resembling 
ours  ;  so  neither  is  the  moral  universe  to  be  explained  by  simply  magni- 
fying our  own  moral  ideas,  and  explaining  everything  by  the  action  of 
n  Being  who  does  what  we  should  have  done  in  his  place.  If  we  insist 
on  this  anthropomorphic  conception  we  are  driven  to  this  dilemma. 
Carlyle  bases  his  belief  in  a  God,  "the  infinite  Good  One,"  on  this 
argument :  "All  that  is  good,  generous,  wise,  right — whatever  I  deliber- 
ately and  for  ever  love  in  others  and  myself,  who  or  what  could  by  any 
possibility  have  given  it  to  me  but  One  who  first  had  it  to  give  ?  This 
is  not  logic  ;  this  is  axiom." 

But  how  of  the  evil?  No  sincere  man  looking  into  the  depths  of  his 
own  soul,  or  at  the  facts  of  the  world  around,  can  doubt  that  along 
with  much  that  is  good,  generous,  wise,  and  right,  there  is  much  that 
is  bad,  base,  foolish,  and  wrong.  If  logic  compels  us  to  receive  as  an 
.axiom  a  good  author  for  the  former,  does  not  the  camo  logic  equally 
compel  us  to  accept  the  axiom  that  the  author  of  the  latter  must  have 
been  one  who  "first  had  it  in  himself  to  give?"  That  is,  we  must 
accept  the  theory  of  a  God  \vho  is  half  good,  half  evil ;  or  adopt  the 
Zoroastrian  conception  of  a  universe  contested  by  an  Ormuzd  and 
Ahriman,  a  good  and  evil  principle,  whose  power  is,  for  the  present  at 
:any  rate,  equally  balanced. 


118       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

From  this  dilemma  there  is  no  escape,  unless  we  give  up  alto- 
gether the  idea  of  an  anthropomorphic  deity,  and  adopt  frankly  the 
scientific  idea  of  a  First  Cause,  inscrutable  arid  past  finding  out?;  and 
of  a  universe  whose  laws  we  can  trace,  but  of  whose  real  essence  we 
know  nothing,  and  can  only  suspect  or  faintly  discern  a  fundamental 
law  which  may  make  the  polarity  of  good  and  evil  a  necessary  con- 
dition of  existence.  This  is  a  more  sublime  as  well  as  more  rational 
belief  than  the  old  orthodox  conception ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that 
it  requires  more  strength  of  mind  to  embrace  it,  and  that  it  appears 
cold  and  cheerless  to  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  see  special 
providences  in  every  ordinary  occurrence,  and  to  fancy  themselves  the 
special  objects  of  supernatural  supervision  in  all  the  details  of  daily 
life.  Hopes-  and  fancies,  however,  are  powerless  against  facts;  and 
the  world  is  as  surely  passing  from  the  phase  of  orthodox  into  that  of 
scientific  belief  as  youth  is  passing  into  manhood,  and  the  planet 
which  we  inhabit  from  the  fluid  and  fiery  state  into  that  of  temperate 
heat,  progressive  cooling,  and  final  extinction  as  the  abode  of  life.  In 
the  meantime,  what  can  we  do  but  possess  our  souls  in  patience,  fol- 
low truth  wherever  it  leads  us,  and  trust,  as  Tennyson  advises,  that  in 
the  long  run  everything  will  be  for  the  best,  and  "  every  winter  turn 
te  spring?" 

The  decay  of  old  religious  beliefs,  and  the  introduction  of  new 
conceptions  based  on  scientific  discovery,  have  given  rise  to  many 
attempts  to  found  new  philosophies,  and  in  some  cases  new  sects  and 
religions,  of  some  of  the  principal  of  which  a  short  account  may  be 
given. 

^  One  of  the  greatest  thinkers  of  modern  times,  Herbert  Spencer, 
-ims  expanded  the  theories  of  modern  science,  specially  those  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  and  of  Darwinian  evolution,  into  a  generalized 
philosophy,  embracing  not  only  the  phenomena  of  the  material  and 
living  universe,  but  also  history,  religion,  politics,  and  all  the  complex 
relations  of  social  life.  He  starts  from  the  principle  that  throughout 
the  universe,  in  general  and  in  detail,  there  is  an  unceasing  redistri- 
bution of  matter  and  motion.  This  shows  itself  as  evolution  where 
there  is  a  predominant  aggregation  of  matter  and  diminution  of 
motion,  and  as  dissolution  where  matter  is  disintegrated  and  motion 
increased.  Thus,  in  the  formation  of  coal,  the  motion  of  the  sun's 
rays  is  fixed  in  the  condensed  matter  of  the  chemical  products  of 
vegetation,  and  is  dissipated  when,  after  countless  ages,  the  coal  is 
burned  and  its  substance  dissolved  into  its  elements.  These  changes 
constitute  a  transformation  of  the  uniform  or  homogeneous  into  the 
differentiated  or  heterogeneous,  as  seen  in  the  condensation  of  nebu- 
lous or  cosmic  matter  into  suns  and  planets ;  in  the  varied  elements 
of  the  inorganic  world;  "in  each  organism,  vegetable  or  animal ;  in 
the  aggregate  of  organisms,  thought  and  geologic  time ;  in  the  mind ; 
in  society;  in  all  products  of  social-  activity."  These  changes  are  all 
in  the  direction  of  passing  from  an  indefinite  whole  to  definite  parts, 
and  they  are  inevitable,  unless  the  original  substance  were  so  abso- 
lutely uniform  as  to  be  absolutely  stable. 

Once  started,  this  process  of  differentiation  tends  necessarily  to 
go  on,  the  surrounding  conditions  being  ever  at  work,  whether  by 
aggregation  or  dissolution,  by  joining  like  to  like,  or  separating  unlike 
from  unlike,  to  sharpen  and  make  more  definite  existing  differences. 

This  is  in  effect  a  generalized  conception  of  Darwin's  laws  of  the 


MODERN  THOUGHT.  119 

"struggle  for  life  "  and  "survival  of  the  fittest."  Finally,  however,  the 
result  of  all  these  changes  is  that  an  ultimate  equilibrium  is  reached, 
which  is  rest  in  the  inorganic  and  death  in  the  organic  world ;  as  when 
the  sun  with  all  its  planets  shall  have  parted  with  all  its  heat,  and  all 
its  energy  shall  have  run  down  to  one  uniform  level.  From  this  state 
it  can  only  be  roused  by  some  fresh  shock  from  without,  dissipating  it 
again  into  a  mass  of  diffused  matter  and  unbalanced  motions. 

Hence  we  come  to  the  final  statements  of  the  Spencerian  philoso- 
phy, as  given  in  the  words  of  its  author : 

"This  rhythm  of  evolution  and  dissolution,  completing  itself 
during  short  periods  in  small  aggregates,  and  in  the  vast  aggregates 
distributed  through  space  completing  itself  in  periods  which  are  im- 
measurable by  human  thought,  is,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  universal  and 
eternal,  each  alternating  phase  of  the  process  predominating,  now  in 
this  region  of  space  and  now  in  that,  as  local  conditions  determine. 
All  these  phenomena,  from  their  great  features  even  to  their  minutest 
details,  are  necessary  results  of  the  persistence  of  force  under  its 
forms  of  matter  and  motion.  Given  these  as  distributed  through 
space,  and  their  quantities  being  unchangeable  either  by  increase  or 
decrease,  there  inevitably  result  the  continuous  redistributions  distin- 
guishable as  evolution  and  dissolution,  as  well  as  those  special  traits 
above  enumerated.  That  which  persists,  unchanging  in  quantity,  but 
ever  changing  in  form,  under  these  sensible  appearances  which  the 
universe  presents  to  us,  transcends  human  knowledge  and  conception, 
is  an  unknown  and  unknowable  power,  which  we  are  obliged  to  recog- 
nize as  without  limit  in  space  and  without  beginning  or  end  in  time." 

This  is,  in  its  highest  form,  the  philosophy  of  Agnosticism.  A 
very  different  thing,  be  it  observed,  from  Atheism,  for  it  distinctly 
recognizes  an  underlying  power  which,  although  "unknown  and 
unknowable,"  may  be  anything  harmonizing  with  the  feelings  and 
aspirations  in  which  all  religious  sentiment  has  its  origin,  so  long  as  it 
fulfils  the  condition  of  not,  by  too  precise  definition,  coming  into 
collision  with  something  which  is  not  "  unknown"  but  "  known"  and 
irreconcilable  with  it. 

For  instance,  there  is  nothing  in  Agnosticism  to  negative  the 
possibility  of  a  future  state  of  existence.  Behind  the  veil  there  may 
be  anything,  and  no  one  can  say  that  individual  consciousness  may  not 
remain  or  be  restored  after  death,  and  that  our  condition  may  not  be 
in  some  way  better  or  worse,  according  to  the  use  we  have  made  of  the 
opportunities  of  life.  But  if  any  one  attempts  to  define  this  future 
state  and  say  we  shall  have  spiritual  bodies,  live  in  the  skies,  sing 
psalms,  and  wave  palm-branches,  we  say  at  once  "this  is  partly 
unknowable  and  partly  known  to  be  impossible." 

These  abstract  speculations,  however,  are  only  adapted  for  a  fe  w 
of  the  highest  thinkers.  That  which  has  given  the  philosophy  of 
Spencer  a  wide  influence  is  the  manner  in  which  he  applies  these 
general  principles  to  the  subjects  which  more  immediately  concern  the 
mass  of  thinking  minds,  such  as  history,  politics,  and  the  problems  of 
social  life.  What  Darwin  shows  in  animal  life  and  the  origin  of  species, 
Spencer  traces  in  the  rise  and  fall  of  empires,  the  growth  and  decline  of 
religions,  the  increasing  complexity  of  social  relations,  the  conflicting 
forces  of  evolution  and  dissolution  at  work  around  us  in  our  every- 
day life,  in  the  relations  of  science  and  theology,  capital  and  labor,  state 
socialism  and  laissez-faire.  For  instance,  the  decline  of  the  Boman 


120       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

Empire  and  its  overthrow  by  the  barbarians  is  analogous  to  the  decay 
of  a  planet  from  loss  of  internal  heat  and  its  dissipation  into  matter 
capable  of  fresh  evolution,  by  the  shock  of  a  comet.  The  ever-increas- 
ing gulf  between  wealth  and  poverty,  science  and  superstition 
resembles  the  process  by  which  the  one-toed  horse  became  gradu- 
ally differentiated  more  and  more  from  the  common  five-toed  type  of 
its  remote  ancestor. 

These  speculations  of  Spencer,  pursued  with  vast  acuteness  and 
research  through  all  branches  of  social  science,  though  they  have  not 
founded  a  new  religion  or  established  a  new  se'ct,  have  undoubtedly 
exercised  a  great  influence  on  modern  thought,  especially  among  the . 
rising  generation. 

Another  "  ism  "  which,  although  it  has  exercised  a  much  narrower 
influence  than  the  philosophy  of  Spencer,  has  founded  a  sect  and  put 
forward  more  definite  claims  to  give  the  world  a  new  religion,  is  that 
which  is  known  as  "  Positivism,"  or  "  Comtism,"  from  the  name  of  its 
founder,  Auguste  Comte.  It  is  not  easy  to  understand,  but  its  essence 
seems  to  be  this. 

Admitting  that  science  has  killed  theology,  and  that  the  old  forms 
of  supernatural  religion,  inevitable  in  the  childhood  of  the  world,  have 
become  incredible,  Comte  cast  about  for  some  idea  which  should  be  at 
the  same  time  "  positive,"  or  based  on  ascertained  fact,  and  fervid 
enough  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  religious  sentiment.  He  thought  he 
found  it  in  "Humanity;"  that  is,  in  love  and  veneration  for  the  abstract 
idea  of  the  human  race,  taken  collectively,  and  considered  in  its  past, 
present,  and  future  relations.  As  patriotism,  a  very  ardent  feeling,  is 
the  love  of  a  limited  section  of  the  human  race ;  and  as  it  has  been 
gradually  enlarged  from  the  limits  of  a  tribe  to  those  of  a  city,  and 
from  those  of  a  city  to  those  of  a  country  or  nationality,  he  conceived 
that  it  might  be  still  further  enlarged  so  as  to  embrace  all  mankind. 
So  far  it  may  be  admitted  that  there  is  a  germ  of  truth  in  Comte's 
idea,  and  that  elevated  minds  may  enlarge  their  view  beyond  the 
narrow  bounds  of  a  particular  country  at  a  particular  period,  and  may 
derive  fresh  incentives  to  action,  and  fresh  subjects  for  ennobling 
thought,  from  a  contemplation  of  the  past  progress,  present  condition, 
and  future  possibilities  of  the  collective  human  race.  But  there  is  a 
homely  proverb  that  "charity  begins  at  home,"  and  as  we  widen  the 
sphere  of  patriotism  or  philanthropy  we  are  very  apt  to  diminish  their 
intensity  and  find  them  evaporate  in  a  mist  of  high-sounding  phrases. 
The  "friend  of  man"  is  very  apt  to  be  the  friend  of  no  one  man  in 
particular,  and  to  make  universal  philanthropy  an  excuse  for  neglect- 
ing individual  charity. 

Apart,  however,  from  this  objection,  and  granting  that  with 
increased  intercourse  and  increased  culture  "Humanity"  might  be- 
come a  more  practical  idea,  we  should  be  still  a  long  way  from  making 
it  the  basis  of  a  new  religion.  It  is  here  that  Comte  has  laid  himself 
open  to  the  scoffs  of  unbelievers,  who  have  gone  so  far  as  to  call  his 
religion  "Catholicism  without  Christianity,"  and  himself  a  "grotesque 
old  Frenchman."  With  the  narrow  systematizing  logic  so  characteris- 
tic of  the  French  intellect  he  has  worked  out  a  complete  scheme  of 
ritual,  hierarchy,  and  all  the  apparatus  of  an  old  religion.  A  supreme 
pontiff  at  its  head,  associated  with  a  supreme  priestess  to  represent 
the  female  element;  for  saints  the  distinguished  men  who  have  advanced 
the  different  branches  of  human  art  and  science ;  for  days  of  worship, 


MODERN  THOUGHT.  121 

fete  days  of  these  saints  and  meetings  of  believers  to  commemorate 
their  merits. 

All  this  savors  too  much  of  the  "Goddess  of  Liberty,"  and  the 
theo-philanthropy  of  the  French  Revolution,  when  the  disciples  of 
Rousseau  cut  off  heads  in  the  name  of  universal  benevolence,  to  find 
much  acceptance  in  a  sceptical  age  and  among  a  practical  people. 
Robuster  intellects,  like  George  Eliot,  even  where  they  incline  to 
accept  Humanity  as  an  ennobling  idea,  and  to  recognize  Comte  as  an 
original  thinker,  reject  all  the  constructive  part  of  his  new  religion  as 
unworthy  of  notice ;  while  to  the  mass  of  mankind  the  whole  thing 
appears  utterly  unreal  and  incomprehensible. 

One  more  "  ism  "—^-Pessimism,  the  gospel  of  feebleness  and  failure 
— has  had  a  considerable  effect  on  the  Continent,  though  little  in  this 
country.  It  is  based  on  the  fact  that,  in  accordance  with  the  universal 
law  of  polarity,  progress  is  not  an  unmixed  good,  but  develops  a  cor- 
responding negative  of  failure.  In  simple  forms  of  society  the  dis- 
tinctions between  wealth  and  poverty,  capital  and  labor,  culture  and 
ignorance,  are  not  so  sharply  defined,  and  the  lot  of  those  who  fail 
in  the  battle  of  life  is  not  so  hard  as  when  men  are  congregated  in 
crowded  cities,  exposed  to  temptations,  and  tantalized  by  the  sight 
of  wealth  and  luxury  before  their  eyes  and  yet  beyond  their  reach.  A 
mass  of  misery  and  discontent  is  thus  created,  which  in  lower  natures 
translates  itself  into  anarchism  and  fanatical  hatred  of  all  above  them, 
while  in  higher  ones  it  takes  the  form  of  theories  for  the  regeneration 
of  the  world  by  levelling  everything  that  exists,  and  building  anew  on 
fresh  foundations.  Still  higher  minds  see  the  futility  of  these  theories, 
and  take  refuge  in  a  philosophy  which  pronounces  the  world  a  mistake, 
life  an  evil,  and  the  only  possible  solution  to  be,  to  put  an  end  to 
what  is  radically  bad  by  an  act  of  universal  suicide.  This  is  in  sub- 
stance the  philosophy  of  Schopenhauer  and  the  school  of  Continental 
Pessimists.  It  has  considerable  analogy  with  that  of  Buddhism,  which 
•considers  all  personal  existence  to  be  a  painful  dream  or  illusion,  and 
places  supreme  happiness  in  Nirvana,  or  escape  from  it  by  annihilation 
of  individuality. 

To  understand  how  such  a  doctrine  can  have  found  acceptance,  we 
must  remember  that  the  tendency  of  modern  civilization  is  to  throw 
more  and  more  work  on  the  brain  and  nervous  system  and  less  on 
other  organs.  This  of  itself  tends  to  produce  more  ill-health  both  of 
mind  and  body,  especially  of  those  digestive  organs  upon  which  the 
sensation  of  health  and  well-being  so  mainly  depends.  A  dyspeptic 
man  is  of  necessity  an  unhappy  and  desponding  man.  Moreover,  in 
ruder  states  of  society  such  weaklings  were  got  rid  of  by  the  summary 
process  of  being  killed  off,  while  with  the  more  humane  and  refined 
arrangements  of  modern  times  they  live  on  and  "  weary  deaf  .heaven 
with  their  fruitless  cries." 

It  is  among  such  men,  with  cultivated  intellects,  sensitive  nerves, 
and  bad  digestion,  that  we  find  the  prophets  and  disciples  of  the 
gospel  of  Pessimism.  They  feel,  and  feel  truly,  that  as  far  as  they  are 
concerned  life  is  an  evil,  the  pains  of  which  far  outweigh  its  pleasures, 
and  having  lost  the  mediaeval  faith  in  a  future  life  where  the  balance 
will  be  redressed,  they  see  no  remedy  for  the  miseries  of  the  world 
but  that  of  ceasing  to  be,  or  annihilation. 

This  affords  another  illustration  of  the  extent  to  which  religions 
and  philosophies  are,  like  the  spectre  of  the  Brocken,  reflections  of 


122      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

our  own  selves  on  dissolving  inists.  clothed  with  our  own  clothes  and 
repeating  our  own  gestures.  To  a  healthy  man  or  to  a  strong  man 
the  pessimist  view  of  the  universe  is  simply  impossible.  If  he  has 
experienced  a  fair  average  of  happiness  and  success  in  life,  he  instinct- 
ively rejects  a  creed  which  tells  him  that  there  are  no  lights  as  well 
as  shadows.  If  he  has  a  mind  of  average  strength  he  feels  that  suffer- 
ing is  a  thing  to  be  avoided  prudently,  borne  stoically,  or  grappled 
with  courageously,  and  not  to  be  run  away  from  by  moral  or  physical 
suicide. 

Accordingly  Pessimism  is  not  a  creed  which  is  ever  likely  to  exert 
much  influence  on  the  strong,  practical  Anglo-Saxon  race,  and  we  can 
only  discern  some  faint  traces  of  it  in  the  tendency  of  certain  very 
limited  cliques  of  so-called  .ZEstheticism  to  admire  morbid  and  self- 
conscious  ideals,  both  in  poetry  and  painting. 

It  is  a  very  curious  and  remarkable  fact,  that  while  so  many 
highly  intellectual  attempts  have  been  made  in  vain  in  modern  times 
to  found  new  sects  and  religions,  the  only  one  which  has  had  any  real 
success  is  that  which  is  based  on  the  most  gross  and  vulgar  imposture 
— Mormonism.  Mormonism  is  a  fact  which,  without  the  vestige  of  a 
reasonable "  argument  to  show  for  itself,  originating  in  the  vulgar 
ravings  and  forgeries  of  a  vulgar  Yankee,  violating  the  first  instincts 
of  the  family  and  of  society  by  polygamy,  still  exists  in  spite  of  perse- 
cutions, and  to  a  certain  extent  progresses  and  flourishes.  The  reason 
seems  to  be  that  instead  of  being  a  theory  in  the  air  or  over  the  heads 
of  the  masses,  it  is,  with  all  its  faults,  a  practical  system  in  contact 
with  the  actual  realities  of  life.  Its  success  is  mainly  owing  to  its 
being  an  organized  system  of  emigration,  and  a  faith  which  places  its 
Paradise  here  on  earth  and  not  in  the  skies.  A  poor  ignorant  laborer 
in  Wales  or  Norway,  who  becomes  a  convert  to  Mormonism,  is  taken 
in  hand  at  once,  forwarded  to  his  destination,  and  when  he  arrives 
there  looked  after  and  put  in  a  way  of  earning  an  honest  livelihood 
and  probably  becoming  a  landed  proprietor.  The  ideal  set  before  him 
is  not  a  very  high  one,  that  of  becoming  a  sober,  industrious,  respect- 
able, narrow-minded  citizen  of  the  State  of  Utah,  and  a  creditable 
member  of  the  community  of  Latter  Day  Saints.  But  to  a  poor 
laborer  from  the  slums  of  Liverpool,  to  lead  such  a  life,  in  the  pure 
mountain  air  in  the  valley  of  the  Salt  Lake,  and  see  his  flocks  and 
herds  increasing  and  his  family  growing  up,  without  care  for  the 
future,  is  indeed  the  realization  of  an  earthly  Paradise.  The  moral  to 
draw  from  this  is,  that  the  success  of  a  religion,  under  the  conditions 
of  modern  society,  does  not  depend  so  much  on  its  theory  as  on  the 
way  in  which  it  takes  hold  of  the  practical  problems  of  life  and  shows 
an  aptitude  for  grappling  with  them. 

Another  wide-spread  modern  delusion,  that  of  Spiritualism,  is 
akin  to  Mormonism,  as  showing  how  little  reason  has  to  do  with  the 
beliefs  which  are  most  readily  propagated  among  large  classes  of  the 
community.  Nothing  but  the  most  morbid  appetite  for  the  super- 
natural, combined  with  the  most  absolute  ignorance  of  the  laws  of 
evidence,  could  induce  sane  people  to  believe  that,  if  a  corner  of  that 
mysterious  arid  awful  veil  were  lifted  which  separates  the  living  from 
the  dead,  we  shall  discover  what? — spirits  whose  vocation  it  is  to  turn 
tables  and  talk  twaddle. 

In  vain  medium  after  medium  is  detected,  and  the  machinery  bjr 
which  ghosts  are  manufactured  exposed  in  police-courts ;  in  vain  the 


MODERN  THOUGHT.  123 

manifestations  of  the  so-called  spirits  are  repeated  by  professional 
conjurers  like  Maskelyne  and  Cooke,  who  disclaim  any  assistance  from 
the  unseen  world.  People  are  still  found  to  believe  the  unbelievable 
because  it  gratifies  their  taste  for  the  marvellous,  and  enables  them  to 
fancy  themselves  the  favored  recipients  of  supernatural  communications. 

If  (Spiritualism  has  found  a  certain  amount  of  acceptance  from 
men  of  a  very  different  order,  who,  like  Crookes  and  Wallace,  under- 
stand what  scientific  evidence  really  is,  it  is  because  the  phenomena 
associated  with  it,  such  as  mesmerism  and  clairvoyance,  really  have  a 
certain  basis  ,  of  fact,  and  open  up  interesting  fields  for  scientific 
investigation.  The  working  of  the  brain  and  nerves  in  certain  abnor- 
mal conditions,  and  the  physical  effects  of  imagination,  are  subjects 
imperfectly  understood,  but  which  well  deserve  accurate  inquiry. 

Take,  for  instance,  dreams,  which  afford  the  first  certain  starting- 
point  towards  the  theory  of  visions  and  apparitions.  It  is  as  certain 
that  we  dream  as  that  we  sleep,  and  that  in  our  sleeping  state  we 
often  live  a  sort  of  second  life,  which  is  different  from  our  ordinary 
waking  life.  Dreams  seem  to  be  made  up  of  impressions  which  have 
been  photographed  on  the  brain  in  its  waking  state,  and  which  are 
revived  and  worked  up  into  new  combinations  and  imaginary  scenes, 
when  consciousness  is  suspended.  Vivid  impressions  are  thus  often 
worked  up  into  a  succession  of  dreams  so  vivid  as  to  be  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  reality.  It  happened  to  me,  about  the  middle 
period  of  my  life,  to  be  sent,  almost  at  a  day's  notice,  to  India,  where 
for  more  than  two  years  I  had  a  period  of  intensely  hard  work  and 
great  responsibility,  as  Finance  Minister.  This  naturally  left  a 
number  of  strong  impressions  on  my  brain,  which  for  years  afterwards 
kept  reviving  in  a  series  of  connected  dreams,  in  which  I  fancied 
myself  back  in  India.  I  had  thus  a  dream  life  as  well  as  a  real  life  of 
Indian  experiences,  and  the  former  was  so  vivid  that,  if  I  were  writing 
reminiscences,  I  should  sometimes  find  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  the  two. 

This  enables  me  to  realize  how  dreams  may  readily  pass  into 
visions.  If  I  had  dozed  off  in  an  arm-chair  after  dinner,  and  fallen 
into  one  of  my  Indian  dreams,  I  might  have  seen  Lord  Canning,  who 
had  been  dead  for  years,  walk  into  the  room  as  distinctly  as  if  he  had 
been  present  in  person.  In  a  less  critical  age,  and  with  a  less  sceptical 
turn  of  mind,  I  might  readily  have  been  convinced  that  I  had  seen  his 
ghost. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  this  way  dreams  must  often,  in 
pre -scientific  ages,  have  originated  a  bond  fide  belief  in  spirits.  Her- 
bert Spencer  traces  to  this  cause  the  origin  of  all  religious  be  ief. 
Perhaps  this  may  be  carrying  it  too  far,  but  doubtless  it  was  one  of 
the  main  causes,  especially  of  that  portion  of  religion  which  took  the 
form  of  offerings  to  the  dead  and  ancestor-worship. 

But  a  still  further  step  may  be  taken  from  the  ordinary  dream 
to  the  waking  dream  or  vision.  It  is  a  well-established  fact  that  under 
peculiar  and  rare  circumstances  the  brain  may  dream,  that  is,  revive 
impressions  where  there  is  no  corresponding  reality,  without  losing 
its  consciousness.  '  There  was  a  celebrated  case  of  a  Berlin  bookseller 
in  the  last  century,  who,  having  fallen  into  bad  health,  lived  for  more 
than  a  year  in  the  company  of  ghosts — that  is,  lie  constantly  saw  men 
and  women,  with  every  appearance  of  being  alive,  enter  the  room  and 
come  and  go  as  if  they  had  been  ordinary  visitors.  Being  a  man  of  a 


124      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

scientific  turn  of  mind  lie  never  supposed  these  were  really  ghosts,  but 
reasoned  on  them  and  recorded  his  experiences.  Instead  of  sending 
for  a  priest  and  resorting  to  exorcisms  he  called  in  a  physician  and 
took  a  course  of  medicine,  with  the  result  that  after  a  considerable 
time  the  ghostly  visitors  gradually  became  dim  and  finally  disappeared. 

Numerous  other  cases  are  recorded  in  which  there  is  no  doubt 
that  visions  have  been  seen,  especially  under  the  influence  of  religious 
excitement,  and  a  large  number  of  so-called  miraculous  appearances 
and  ghost  stories  are  probably  owing  to  this  cause  rather  than  to 
conscious  imposture. 

When  we  consider  the  enormous  number  of  dreams,  and  probably 
considerable  number  of  visions,  which  occur,  instead  of  being  surprised 
at  occasional  coincidences,  the  wonder  rather  is  that  they  are  not  more 
frequent.  If  only  one  per  cent,  of  the  30,000,000  inhabitants  of  the 
British  Isles  dream  every  night,  that  would  give  109,500,000  dreams 
per  annum,  a  large  proportion  of  which  are  made  up  of  vivid  impres- 
sions of  actual  persons  and  events.  It  is  impossible  that  some  of  the 
combinations  of  these  impressions  should  not  form  pictures  which  are 
subsequently  realized,  and  we  may  be  sure  that  the  successes  only  will 
be  noted,  and  the  failures  forgotten.  It  is  strange,  therefore,  that  the 
researches  of  the  Psychical  Society  should  not  have  brought  to  light 
more  instances  of  death-warnings  and  other  remarkable  coincidences. 
To  take  the  vulgar  instance  of  horse-racing.  A  number  of  minds  are 
greatly  exercised  over  the  problem  of  picking  out  winners,  and  doubt- 
less a  vast  number  of  dreams  show  colors  flashing  past  winning-posts, 
and  numbers  hoisted  on  the  telegraph  board.  And  yet  I  only  remem- 
ber two  tolerably  well-authenticated  instances  in  the  last  half-century, 
in  which  any  one  is  said  to  have  backed  a  winner  on  the  faith  of  a 
dream.  The  only  positive  result  of  dreams  and  visions  is  that  they 
frequently  occur  under  circumstances  where  they  are  almost  certain 
to  be  mistaken,  by  unscientific  persons  in  unscientific  ages,  for  actual 
supernatural  appearances. 

Another  field  for  inquiry  is  opened  out  by  the  effects  which  are 
undoubtedly  produced  under  certain  abnormal  conditions  of  the  brain 
and  nervous  system,  as  in  epilepsy,  somnambulism,  and  mesmerism. 

In  the  simplest  case,  that  of  epilepsy,  the  effect  is  mainly  shown 
by  a  more  intense  action  of  nerve-currents,  causing  convulsive  motions 
and  an  unnatural  increase  of  muscular  strength  and  rigidity,  SQ  that 
two  strong  men  may  be  scarcely  able  to  hold  one  weak  woman.  In 
somnambulism,  the  effects  are  more  complex.  The  reception  of  out- 
ward impressions  seems  to  be  limited,  so  that  the  whole  consciousness 
and  vital  energy  are  concentrated  on  particular  actions,  which  are  thus 
performed  safely,  while  in  the  ordinary  waking  state  they  would  be 
impossible.  Thus  a  somnambulist  walks  securely  along  a  plank  span- 
ning an  abyss,  because  the  impressions  of  surrounding  space  do  not 
reach  the  brain  and  confuse  it  with  a  sense  of  danger.  In  this  state 
also  past  impressions  photographed  on  the  brain,  which  in  the  ordi- 
nary waking  state  are  obscured  by  other  impressions,  seem  to  come 
out  occasionally  as  in  dreams,  enabling  the  somnambulist  to  do  and 
remember  things  which  would  otherwise  be  beyond  his  faculties. 

Mesmerism  is  closely  akin  to  somnambulism.  Apart  from  delu- 
sion and  charlatanism  the  fact  seems  to  be  established  that  it  is 
possible,  by  artificial  means,  to  induce  a  state  resembling  somnambu- 
lism in  persons  of  a  peculiar  nervous  temperament.  As  regards  the 


MODERN  THOUGHT.  125 

means,  the  essential  point  seems  to  be  to  throw  the  brain  into  this 
abnormal  state  partly  by  keeping  an  unnatural  strain  on  the  attention, 
and  partly  by  acting  on  it  through  the  imagination.  The  experiments 
of  Dr.  Braid  showed  that  the  mesmeric  sleep  could  be  induced  just  as 
well  by  keeping  the  eye  strained  on  a  black' wafer  stuck  on  a  white 
wall,  as  by  the  manipulations  of  an  operator.  This  experiment  dis- 
poses of  a  great  deal  of  mysterious  nonsense  about  magnetic  fluids, 
overpowering  wills,  and  other  supposed  attributes  of  professional 
rnesmerizers,  and  reduces  the  question  to  the  plain  matter-of-fact  level 
of  the  relations  between  the  brain,  will,  imagination,  and  nervous 
system,  which  exist  in  natural  and  in  artificial  somnambulism.  These  are 
undoubtedly  very  curious,  and  open  up  a  wide  field  for  physiological 
and  mental  research.  As  far  as  I  have  seen  or  read,  they  seem  to 
turn  mainly  on  the  reflex  effects  of  an  excited  imagination  on  other 
organs  and  faculties.  I  do  not  believe  that  any  one  could  be  mesmer- 
ized who  was  absolutely  ignorant  of  the  subject  and  unconscious  that 
any  one  was  operating.  On  the  other  hand,  any  one  who  had  fre- 
quently been  mesmerized  would  fall  into  the  sleep  if  Jed  to  believe 
that  an  operator  was  at  work  when  there  was  really  not  one.  And  the 
peculiar  effects  shown  in  the  mesmeric  state  are  attributable  mainly, 
if  not  entirely,  to  the  imagination  acting  with  morbid  activity  on  the 
slightest  hint  or  suggestion  of  what  is  expected.  Thus  the  will  disap- 
pears in  the  more  powerful  suggestion  of  the  imagination  that  the 
patient  has  to  obey  the  will  of  the  operator,  or  do  certain  things  which 
are  in  the  programme.  I  can  readily  believe  also  that  in  this  state 
the  imagination  can  perform  feats  which  would  be  impossible  to  it 
in  a  natural  state  when  it  is  kept  in  check  by  other  faculties,  and  that 
a  good  deal  of  what  is  called  clairvoyance  may  be  explained  by  the 
way  in  which  the  slightest  hint  from  expression,  involuntary  muscular 
motion,  or  otherwise,  is  taken  advantage  of  as  a  substitute  for  the 
ordinary  modes  of  communication.  Such  a  faculty  may  also  doubtless 
be  cultivated  by  practice,  and  thus  explain  many  of  the  phenomena  of 
what  are  called  spiritual  communications  and  thought-reading.  But 
that  impressions  can  be  made  on  the  brain,  or  that  one  mind  can  com- 
municate with  another,  without  some  physical  means  of  connection 
between  object  and  subject,  is  absolutely  unproved  and  remains 
altogether  incredible. 

Among  the  great  writers  who,  without  attempting  to  found  sects, 
have  profoundly  influenced  modern  thought,  Carlyle  undoubtedly 
occupies  the  foremost  place.  With  all  his  extravagances  and  eccen- 
tricities, he  was  essentially  a  Hebrew  prophet  in  modern  guise,  preach- 
ing a  true  gospel — that  of  sincerity.  To  stand  on  fact  and  despise 
shams,  to  make  one's  life  accord  with  the  "eternal  veracities,"  to  strip 
off  outward  trappings  and  look  at  the  ideas  they  clothe,  to  worship 
truth  and  abhor  falsehood;  these  are  the  principles  which  Carlyle 
is  never  tired  of  enforcing  in  his  vivid  and  picturesque  language.  The 
dignity  of  all  faithful  work,  and  the  hollowness  of  mere  show  and 
pretence,  is  another  theme  on  which  he  delights  to  dwell ;  and  the 
maxim,  "Dp  the  nearest  duty  that  lies  to  your  hand  and  already  the 
next  duty  will  have  become  plainer,"  is  his  favorite  rule  for  practical 
conduct.  He  insists  much  on  "hero-worship,"  and  pushes  his  con- 
clusions to  an  extreme  extent,  dividing  mankind  too  absolutely  into 
two  classes ;  on  the  one  hand  the  heroes  who  discern  facts  and  the 
followers  who  loyally  obey  them ;  on  the  other,  the  great  mass  of 


126       MODERX  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

foolish  and  chattering  humanity.  Human  nature  is  not  really  all 
^  black  or  all  white,  but  shaded  off  by  innumerable  half-hints  and 
blended  gradations.  Nevertheless  -'hero-worship"  contains  a  great 
truth,  that  loyal  reverence  for  what  we  feel  to  be  above  us  does  not 
lower  a  man  but  elevates  him ;  and  that  those  really  degrade  them- 
selves who  have  no  respect  for  higher  things,  and  try  to  drag  every- 
thing down  to  their  own  level. 

In  insisting  on  looking  through  phrases  to  facts  Carlyle  touches 
one  of  the  great  dangers  of  the  present  day.  The  spread  of  educa- 
tion has  given  an  extension  to  the  influence  of  words  which  threatens 
to  become  excessive.  People  read  until  they  have  no  time  to  think, 
and  find  it  easier  to  borrow  the  thoughts  of  others.  And  a  large  and 
ever-increasing  portion  of  the  community  have  learnt,  in  Yankee  phrase, 
to  '•  orate,"  and  use  the  new-found  faculty  incessantly  and  remorselessly. 
I  do  not  refer  so  much  to  the  obstruction  of  the  Parliamentary  machine 
by  floods  of  talk,  for  that  is  an  evil  which  will  work  its  own  cure,  but 
to  the  undue  influence  which  oratory  tends  to  acquire  in  all  constitu- 
tional countries,  where  the  ultimate  power  is  vested  in  what  is  essentially 
a  debating  society.  A  great  orator  is  inevitably  a  great  power  in  the 
State,  but  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  he  is  a  great  statesman. 

The  qualities  which  make  an  orator  depend  to  a  great  extent  on  gifts 
of  nature,  such  as  a  good  voice  and  presence,  and  still  more  on  the 
gift  of  a  fervid  temperament,  which  moves  and  convinces  others  because 
the  speaker  is  himself  moved  and  convinced.  These  may  or  may  not 
coincide  with  the  gifts  of  a  great  statesman,  ripe  experience,  clear 
judgment,  and  calm  courage.  When  they  do  coincide  the  State  will  be 
well  ruled;  when  they  do  not,  the  statesman  will  lack  motive  power, 
and  the  orator  will  lack  statesmanship  ;  so  that  between  the  two  the 
affairs  of  the  nation  will  be  apt  to  be  mismanaged.  Still,  on  the  whole 
we  must  accept  the  inevitable,  and  trust  that  the  public  opinion  which 
is  formed  by  many  speeches  and  many  articles  will  give  better  average 
results  than  by  attempting  to  find  a  hero  who  might  just  as  readily 
turn  out  to  be  a  Cleon  as  a  Pericles.  But  the  influence  of  Carlyle's 
teaching  will  always  remain  useful  as  a  corrective,  and  as  a  warning 
to  public  opinion  to  measure  public  men  by  their  solid  qualities  rather 
than  by  their  oratorical  talent. 

The  influence  of  Carlyle  has  been  great  on  all  the  foremost  minds 
of  his  generation,  and  may  be  distinctly  traced  in  their  writings.  If 
Tennyson  makes  his  Guinevere  say: 

Oh  God  !  what  might  I  have   made  of  Thy  fair  earth 
Had  I  but  loved  Thy  highest  creature  in  it ! 
We  needs  must  love  the  highest  when  we  see  it. 

This  is  genuine  Carlylese  condensed  into  noble  poetry.  The  whole 
literature  of  fiction  has  been  transformed.  The  fashionable  novel, 
with  its  dandified  coxcomb  heroes  and  simpering  fine  lady  heroines, 
has  been  superseded  by  works  like  those  of  Dickens,  Thackeray, 
Trollope,  and  George  Eliot,  which  satirize  folly  and  pretension  how- 
ever highly  placed,  and  aim  at  honest,  earnest,  simple  and  sincere 
ideals  of  true  men  and  women.  The  whole  tone  of  society  has  become 
more  manly,  and  no  one  now  thinks  of  acquiring  fame  by  wearing  a 
pea-green  coat  or  getting  a  voucher  for  Almack's.  Artificial  distinctions 
have  to  a  great  extent  disappeared,  the  sons  of  dukes  think  it  no 
disgrace  to  earn  an  honest  livelihood  as  stockbrokers,  and  self-made 


MIRACLES.  127 

men  are  received  on  an  equal  footing  everywhere  if  they  have  the 
essential  qualities  of  gentlemen.  There  is  vastly  more  real  equality 
and  real  fraternity  among  men,  and  every  one  recognizes,  in  theory 
at  any  rate,  the  dignity  of  honest  labor,  whether  of  the  hand  or 
head.  The  certain  survival  also,  in  the  long  run,  of  truth  over  false- 
hood, or  in  other  words  of  the  fittest,  as  being  most  in  accordance 
with  the  laws  of  the  universe,  is  universally  recognized  as  a  law  in  the 
moral  as  well  as  in  the  material  world. 

For  these  results,  which  have  now  become  almost  commonplaces, 
those  who  derived  them  in  their  youth  direct  from  works  like  "  Sartor 
Besartus  "  can  best  judge  to  what  an  extent  modern  thought  has  been 
indebted  to  Carlyle. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
MIRACLES. 

WHEN  men  began  to  reason  on  the  phenomena  of  the  world 
around  them,  it  was  inevitable  that  they  should  begin  by  refer- 
ring all  striking  occurrences  to  supernatural  causes.  Just  as  they 
measured  space  by  feet  and  inches,  and  time  by  days  and  years,  they 
referred  unusual  events  to  personal  agencies.  They  knew  by  experience 
that  certain  effects  were  produced  by  their  own  wills,  muscular  energies, 
and  passions ;  and  when  they  saw  effects  which  seemed  to  be  of  a  like 
nature,  they  inferred  that  they  must  have  been  produced  by  like 
causes. 

To  take  the  familiar  instance  of  thunder.  The  first  savage  who 
thought  about  it  must  have  said :  "  The  sound  is  very  like  the  roar  with 
which  I  spring  on  a  wild  beast  or  an  enemy ;  the  flash  of  lightning  is 
very  like  the  flash  of  the  arrow  or  javelin  with  which  I  strike  him ;  the 
effect  is  often  the  same,  that  he  is  killed.  Surely  there  must  be  some 
one  in  the  clouds,  very  strong,  very  angry,  very  able  to  do  me  harm, 
unless  I  can  propitiate  him  by  prayers  or  offerings.  "  But  after  long 
centuries,  science  steps  in.  An  elderly  gentleman  at  Philadelphia, 
Benjamin  Franklin  by  name,  sends  up  a  silk  kite  during  a  thunder- 
storm, and  behold!  the  lightning  is  drawn  down  from  the  skies, 
tamed,  and  made  to  emit  harmless  sparks,  or  to  follow  the  course  of  a 
conducting  wire,  at  our  will  and  pleasure.  There  is  no  more  room 
left  for  the  supernatural  in  the  fiercest  tropical  thunder-storm  than 
there  is  in  turning  the  handle  of  an  electrical  machine,  or  sending  in  a 
tender  to  light  the  streets  of  London  by  electric  light.  And  the  result 
is  absolutely  certain.  In  the  contest  between  the  natural  and  super- 
natural, the  latter  has  not  only  been  repulsed  but  annihilated.  The 
most  orthodox  believer  in  miracles,  if  his  faith  were  brought  to  the 
practical  test  of  backing  his  opinions  by  his  money,  would  rather 
insure  a  gin-palace  or  gambling  saloon  protected  by  a  lightning  con- 
ductor than  a  chapel  protected  by  the  prayers  of  a  pious  preacher. 

This  instance  of  thunder  is  a  type  of  the  revolution  of  thought 
which  has  been,  brought  about  by  modern  science  in  the  whole  manner 
of  viewing  *the  phenomena  of  the  surrounding  universe.  Former  ages 
saw  miracles  everywhere,  the  age  in  which  we  live  sees  them  nowhere, 


128       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

except  possibly  in  the  single  instance  of  the  miracles  recorded  in  the 
Bible.  In  the  annals  of  grave  Roman  historians, 

In  every  page  loculus  bos. 

Not  a  Caesar  or  a  Consul  died,  without  an  ox  speaking,  or  a  flaming 
sword  in  the  skies  predicting  portents.  If  the  moon  happened  to  pass 
between  the  sun  and  the  earth  the  dim  eclipse 

With  fear  of  change  perplexes  monarchs. 

If  the  winds  blow  it  is  because  ^Eolus  releases  them  from  the  cave ;  if 
the  rains  fall  it  is  because  Jupiter  opens  the  windows  of  heaven,  or 
Indra  causes  the  cloud-cows  to  drop  their  milk  on  the  parched  earth. 
Perhaps  no  better  proof  can  be  afforded  of  the  universal  belief  that 
miracles  were  considered  matters  of  every-day  occurrence  than  is  given 
by  the  passage  in  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  in  which  he 
enumerates  the  principal  Christian  gifts,  and  assigns,  as  it  were,  their 
comparative  order  and  the  number  of  marks  that  should  be  given  to 
each  in  a  competitive  examination. 

The  power  of  "  working  miracles  "  comes  low  in  the  list.  "  First 
apostles,  secondarily  prophets,  thirdly  teachers,  after  that  miracles, 
then  gifts  of  healings,  helps,  governments,  diversities  of  tongues." 
And  he  goes  on  to  say,  in  words  that  come  home  to  every  heart  in  all 
centuries,  that  all  those  things  are  worthless  as  compared  with  that 
true  Christian  charity  which  "suffereth  long,  and  is  kind;  envieth 
not ;  vaunteth  not  itself,  is  not  puffed  up,  doth  not  behave  itself 
unseemly,  seeketh  not  her  own,  is  not  easily  provoked,  thinketh  no 
evil;  rejoiceth  not  in  inquity,  but  rejoiceth  in  the  truth;  beareth  all 
things,  believethall  things,  hopeth  all  things,  endureth  all  things." 

This  is  in  the  true  spirit  of  modern  thought,  which,  when  the 
externals  of  religion  fail,  strives  to  look  below  them  at  its  essence,  and 
to  retain  what  is  eternally  true  and  beautiful  as  the  ideal  of  a  spiritual 
and  the  guide  of  a  practical  life,  while  rejecting  all  the  outward 
apparatus  of  metaphysical  creeds  and  incredible  miracles,  which  had 
only  a  temporary  value,  and  can  no  longer  be  believed  without  shut- 
ting one's  eyes  to  facts  and  becoming  guilty  of  conscious  or 
unconscious  insincerity. 

But  to  return  to  miracles.  Almost  the  entire  world  of  the 
supernatural  fades  away  of  itself  with  an  extension  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  laws  of  Nature,  as  surely  as  the  mists  melt  from  the  valley  before 
the  rays  of  the  morning  sun.  We  have  seen  how,  throughout  the 
wide  domains  of  space,  time,  and  matter,  law,  uniform,  universal,  and 
inexorable,  reigns  supreme ;  and  there  is  absolutely  no  room  for  the 
interference  of  any  outside  personal  agency  to  suspend  its  operations. 
The  last  remnant  of  supernaturalism,  therefore,  apart  from  the 
Christian  miracles  which  we  shall  presently  consider,  has  shrunk  into 
that  doubtful  and  shady  border-land  of  ghosts,  spiritualism  and 
mesmerism,  where  vision  and  fact,  and  partly  real  partly  imaginary 
effects  of  abnormal  nervous  conditions,  are  mixed  up  in  a  nebulous 
haze  with  a  large  dose  of  imposture  and  credulity. 

Even  this  region  is  being  contracted  every  day  by  every  fresh 
revelation  in  a  police-court,  and  every  fresh  discovery  of  the  laws 
which  really  regulate  the  transmission  of  nervous  energy  to  and  from 
the  brain,  in  the  abnormal  state  which  constitutes  epilepsy  and 
somnambulism,  and  enables  an  excited  imagination  to  produce  physical 
effects,  such  as  those  of  drastic  drugs  on  a  patient  who  has  actually 
taken  nothing  but  pills  of  harmless  paste. 


MIRACLES.  129 

The  question  of  Christian  miracles,  however,  rests  on  a  different 
and  more  serious  ground.  They  have  been  accepted  for  ages  as  the 
foundation  and  proof  of  a  religion  which  has  been  for  nineteen 
centuries  that  of  the  highest  civilization  and  purest  morality,  and  for 
this  reason  alone  they  deserve  the  most  reverent  treatment  and  the 
most  careful  consideration. 

Of  a  large  class  of  these  miracles  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  them,  but  none  to  consider  them  as  violations  of  law, 
or  anything  but  the  expression,  in  the  language  of  the  time,  of  natural 
effects  and  natural  causes.  When  a  large  class  of  maladies  were 
universally  attributed  to  the  agency  of  evil  spirits  which  had  taken 
possession  of  the  patient's  body,  it  was  inevitable  that  many  cures 
would  be  effected,  and  that  these  cures  would  be  set  down  as  the 
casting  out  of  devils.  In  many  cases  also  a  strong  impulse  communi- 
cated to  the  brain  may  send  a  current  along  a  nerve  which  may 
temporarily,  or  even  permanently,  restore  motion  to  a  paralyzed  limb, 
or  give  fresh  vitality  to  a  paralyzed  nerve.  Thus,  the  lame  may  walk, 
the  dumb  speak,  and  the  blind  see,  with  no  more  occasion  to  invoke 
supernatural  agency  than  if  the  same  effects  had  been  produced  by  a 
current  of  electricity  from  a  voltaic  battery.  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  miracles  of  this  sort  have  been  frequently  wrought  by 
saints  and  relics,  and  that  even  at  the  present  day  they  may  possibly 
be  wrought  at  Lourdes  and  other  shrines  of  Catholic  faith.  Only  at 
the  present  day  we  scrutinize  the  evidence  and  count  the  failures,  and 
admit  nothing  to  be  supernatural  which  can  be  explained  as  within  a 
fair  average  result  of  exceptional  cases  under  the  operation  of  natural 
laws.  In  like  manner  we  set  down  all  visions  or  apparitions  as  having 
no  objective  reality  if  they  can  be  explained  by  the  known  laws  of 
dreams  or  other  vivid  revivals  of  impressions  on  the  brain  of  the 
person  who  perceives  them. 

There  remains  the  class  of  really  supernatural  miracles,  or  mira- 
cles which  could  by  no  possibility  have  occurred  as  they  are  described, 
unless  some  outward  agency  had  suspended  or  reversed  the  laws  of 
Nature.  As  regards  such  miracles,  a  knowledge  of  these  laws  enor- 
mously increases  the  difficulty  in  believing  in  them  as  actual  facts. 
Take  for  instance  the  conversion  of  water  into  wine.  When  nothing 
was  known  of  the  constitution  of  water  or  of  wine,  except  that  they 
were  both  fluids,  it  was  comparatively  easy  to  accept  the  statement 
that  such  a  conversion  really  took  place.  But  now  we  know  that 
water  consists  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  combined  in  a  certain  simple 
proportion,  and  of  these  and  nothing  else;  while  wine  contains  in 
addition  nitrogen,  carbon,  and  other  elements  combined  in  very  com- 
plicated proportions.  If  the  water  was  not  really  changed  into  wine, 
but  only  seemed  to  be  so,  it  was  a  mere  juggling  trick,  such  as  the 
Wizard  of  the  North  can  show  us  any  day  for  a  shilling.  But  if  it 
was  really  changed,  something  must  have  been  created  out  of  nothing 
to  supply  the  elements  which  were  not  in  the  original  water  and  were 
not  put  into  it  from  without. 

Again,  those  who  have  followed  the  question  of  spontaneous 
generation,  and  witnessed  the  failure  of  the  ablest  chemists  to  produce 
the  lowest  forms  of  protoplasmic  life  from  inorganic  elements,  will 
hardly  believe  that  such  a  highly  organized  form  of  life  as  a  serpent 
could  have  been  really  produced  from  a  wooden  rod.  And  this,  be  it 
observed,  not  only  by  Moses  the  prophet  of  God,  but  by  the  jugglers 


130      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT, 

who  amused  the  court  of  Pharaoh  by  their  conjuring  tricks  ;  and  for 
an  object  of  no  greater  moment  than  to  persuade  a  king  to  allow  some 
of  his  subjects  to  emigrate,  which  object,  moreover,  notwithstanding 
the  miracle,  entirely  failed,  as  the  king  simply  "hardened  his  heart" 
and  persisted  in  his  refusal. 

But  passing  from  this  class  of  grotesque  and  incredible  miracles, 
let  us  examine  those  which  may  be  called  worthy  miracles ;  that  is, 
miracles  disfigured  by  no  absurd  details,  and  wrought  for  objects  of 
sufficient  importance  to  justify  supernatural  interference,  if  ever  such 
interference  were  to  take  place.  At  the  head  of  such  miracles  must 
undoubtedly  oe  placed  those  of  the  Saviour's  resurrection.  The 
appearances  to  the  Apostles,  and  above  all  the  bodily  Ascension  to 
heaven  in  the  presence  of  more  than  500  witnesses,  were  a  fitting 
termination  to  the  drama  of  His  life  and  sufferings,  and  afforded  a 
conclusive  test  of  the  fact  which  was  the  foundation-stone  of  the  new 
religion. 

"If  Christ  be  not  risen,  then  is  our  preaching  vain,"  say's  St. 
Paul ;  and  he  proceeds  to  argue  that  the  whole  question  of  the  reality 
of  a  future  life  hinges  on  the  fact  that  Christ  really  rose  from  the  dead. 
His  theory  is  that  death  came  into  the  world  by  the  sin  of  the  first 
man,  Adam,  and  has  been  destroyed  and  swallowed  up  in  immortality 
by  the  victory  of  the  second  man,  Christ.  This  theory  has,  from  that 
day  to  this,  been  the  key-stone  of  Christian  theology. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  if  any  miracle  is  true  this 
must  be  the  one,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  this  miracle  cannot  be 
established  by  sufficient  proof,  it  is  idle  to  discuss  the  evidence  for 
other  miracles.  In  order  to  go  to  the  root  of  the  matter  therefore,  it 
is  necessary  to  consider,  in  a  calm  and  judicial  spirit,  the  evidence 
upon  which  this  miracle  of  the  Resurrection  really  rests. 

In  the  first  place  we  must  consider  what  sort  of  evidence  is 
required  to  prove  a  miracle.  Clearly  it  must  be  evidence  of  the  most 
cogent  and  unimpeachable  character,  far  more  conclusive  than  would 
be  sufficient  to  establish  an  ordinary  occurrence.  The  discoveries  of 
modern  science  have  shown  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt  that  the 
miracles  which  former  ages  fancied  they  saw  around  them  every  day 
had  no  real  existence,  and  that,  except  possibly  in  the  solitary  instance 
of  the  Christian  miracles,  there  has  been  no  supernatural  interference 
with  the  laws  of  Nature  throughout  the  enormous  ranges  of  space, 
time,  and  matter.  It  may  be  going  too  far  to  say  with  Hume  that  no 
amount  of  evidence  can  prove  a  miracle,  since  it  must  always  remain 
more  probable  that  human  testimony  should  be  false  than  that  the 
laws  of  Nature  should  have  been  violated.  But  it  is  not  going  too 
far  to  say  that  the  evidence  to  establish  such  a  violation  must  be 
altogether  overwhelming  and  open  to  no  other  possible  construction. 

Take  the  case  of  the  allegation  that  a  man  who  had  really  died 
rose  in  the  body  from  the  grave,  ate,  drank,  and  held  intercourse  with 
living  persons.  There  are  some  1,200  millions  of  human  beings  living 
in  the  world,  and  somewhat  more  than  three  generations  in  each  cen- 
tury, that  is,  there  are  s'ome  3,600  millions  of  deaths  per  century,  and 
this  has  been  going  on  for  some  forty  or  fifty  centuries,  or  longer. 
It  is  certain,  therefore,  that  at  least  150,000  millions  of  deaths  must 
have  taken  place,  and  a  large  proportion  of  these  under  circumstances 
involving  the  most  heart-rending  separations,  and  the  most  intense 
longing  on  the  part  of  the  dying  to  give,  and  of  the  living  to  receive, 


MIRACLES.  131 

some  token  of  affection  from  beyond  the  grave.  And  yet  no  such 
token  has  ever  been  given,  and  the  veil  which  separates  the  dead 
from  the  living  has  never  been  lifted,  except  possibly  in  one  case  out 
of  this  150,000,000,000.  Surely  it  must  require  very  different  evidence 
to  establish  the  reality  of  such  an  exception,  from  that  which  would 
be  sufficient  to  prove  the  signature  to  a  will  or  the  date  of  a  battle. 

But  just  when  the  new  views  opened  up  by  modern  science  made 
it  more  difficult  to  believe  in  miracles,  and  more  exacting  in  the 
demand  for  stronger  evidence  to  support  them,  the  old  evidence 
became  greatly  weakened.  The  main  evidence  which  satisfied  our  fore- 
fathers was  that  the  Bible  was  inspired,  and  that  it  asserted  the 
reality  of  the  miracles.  This,  when  critically  examined,  was  really  no 
evidence  at  all,  for  how  did  we  know  that  the  Bible  was  inspired? 
Because  it  was  proved  to  be  so  by  miracles.  The  argument  was  there- 
fore in  a  circle,  and  resembled  that  of  the  Hindoo  mythology,  which 
rested  the  earth  on  an  elephant  and  the  elephant  on  a  tortoise.  But 
what  did  the  tortoise  rest  on? 

To  examine  the  matter  more  closely,  what  is  the  meaning  of 
inspiration?  It  means  that  a  certain  book  was  not  written,  as  all  other 
books  in  the  world  have  been  written,  by  writers  who  were  fallible, 
and  whose  statements  and  opinions,  however  admirable  in  the  main 
and  made  in  perfect  good  faith,  inevitably  reflected  the  views  of  the 
age  in  which  they  lived  and  contained  matters  which  subsequent  ages 
found  to  be  obsolete  or  erroneous,  but  that  this  particular  book  was 
miraculously  dictated  by  an  infallible  God,  and  therefore  absolutely 
and  for  all  time  true.  But,  as  a  chain  cannot  be  stronger  than  its 
weakest  link,  if  any  one  of  these  statements  were  proved  not  to  be  true, 
the  theory  of  inspiration  failed,  and  human  reason  was  called  on  to 
decide  by  the  ordinary  methods,  whether  any,  and  if  any,  what  parts  of 
the  Volume  were  inspired  and  what  uninspired. 

Now  it  is  absolutely  certain  that  portions  of  the  Bible,  and  those 
important  portions  relating  to  the  creation  of  the  world  and  of  man, 
are  not  true,  and  therefore  not  inspired.  It  is  certain  that  the  sun, 
moon,  stars,  and  earth,  were  not  created  as  the  author  of  Genesis 
supposed  them  to  have  been  created,  and  that  the  first  man,  whose 
Palaeolithic  implements  are  found  in  caves  and  river  gravels  of  immense 
antiquity,  was  a  very  different  being  from  the  Adam  who  was  created 
in  God's  likeness  and  placed  in  the  Garden  of  Eden.  It  is  certain  that 
no  universal  deluge  ever  took  place  since  man  existed,  and  that  the 
animal  life  existing  in  the  world,  and  shown  by  fossil  remains  to  have 
existed  for  untold  ages,  could  by  no  possibility  have  originated  from 
pairs  of  animals  living  together  for  forty  days  in  the  ark,  and  radiating 
from  a  mountain  in  Armenia. 

Another  test  of  inspiration  is  afforded  by  the  presence  of  con- 
tradictions. If  one  writer  says  that  certain  events  occurred  in  Galilee 
while  another  says  that  they  took  place  at  Jerusalem,  they  cannot  both 
be  inspired.  They  may  be  both  reminiscences  of  real  events,  but  they 
are  obviously  imperfect  and  not  inspired  reminiscences,  and  require  to 
be  tested  by  the  same  process  of  reasoning  as  we  should  apply  in 
endeavoring  to  unravel  the  truth  from  the  confused  and  contradictory 
evidence  of  conflicting  historians. 

Inspiration  is  clearly  as  much  a  miracle  as  any  of  the  miracles 
which  it  relates,  and  there  is  only  one  way  conceivable  by  which  it 
could  be  proved,  so  as.  to  afford  a  solid  basis  for  faith  and  give  addi- 


132      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

tional  evidence  in  support  of  the  supernatural  occurrences  said  to  have 
taken  place ;  that  would  be  if  it  carried  with  it  internal  evidence  of  its 
truth.  Such  evidence  might  be  afforded  in  one  way,  and  in  one  only — 
by  prophecy.  If  any  volume  written  many  centuries  ago  contained  a 
clear,  definite,  and  distinct  prophecy  of  future  events,  which  the  writer 
could  by  no  possibility  have  known  or  conjectured,  such  a  prophecy 
must  have  been  dictated  by  some  agency  different  from  anything 
known  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature  ;  and  future  ages,  seeing  the 
fulfillment  of  the  prophecy,  could  scarcely  doubt  that  the  volume  which 
contained  it  was  inspired.  But  such  a  prophecy  must  be  quite  defi- 
nite, so  that  there  could  be  no  doubt  as  to  whether  it  had  been  ful- 
filled or  not,  and  must  not  consist  of  vague  and  mystic  utterances,  in 
which  future  believers  might  find  meanings,  probably  never  thought 
of  by  the  prophets  themselves,  confirming  the  faith  which,  from  other 
considerations,  they  thought  it  a  sin  to  disbelieve.  Nor  must  it  con- 
sist of  passionate  aspirations  for  deliverance,  and  predictions  of  the 
downfall  of  cruel  conquerors,  wrung  from  the  hearts  of  an  oppressed 
people  in  times  of  imminent  danger  and  crushing  despair ;  because 
such  predictions  have  been  partly  verified  and  partly  transformed  in 
future  ages,  so  as  to  receive  a  new  and  spiritual  significance. 

There  is  one  prophecy  which  affords  a  test  by  which  to  judge  of 
the  value  of  all  others  as  a  proof  of  inspiration,  for  it  is  perfectly 
distinct  and  definite,  and  comes  from  the  highest  authority — that  of 
the  approaching  end  of  the  world  contained  in  the  New  Testament. 

St.  Matthew  reports  Jesus  to  have  said : 

"For  the  Son  of  man  shall  come  in  the  glory  of  his  Father  with 
his  angels;  and  then  he  shall  reward  every  man  according  to  his 
works. 

"Verily  I  say  unto  you,  There  be  some  standing  here,  which 
shall  not  taste  of  death,  till  they  see  the  Son  of  man  coming  in  his 
kingdom." 

It  is  certain  that  all  standing  there  did  taste  death  without  seeing 
the  Son  of  Man  coming  with  His  angels.  The  conclusion  is  irresisti- 
ble, that  either  Jesus  was  mistaken  in  speaking  these  words,  or  else 
Matthew  was  mistaken  in  supposing  that  He  spoke  them. 

St.  Paul  predicts  the  same  event  in  still  more  definite  terms.  He 
says : 

"For  this  we  say  unto  you  by  the  word  of  the  Lord,  that  we 
which  are  alive  and  remain  unto  the  coming  of  the  Lord  shall  not 
prevent  them  which  are  asleep. 

"For  the  Lord  himself  shall  descend  from  heaven  with  a  shout, 
with  the  voice  of  the  archangel,  and  with  the  trump  of  God :  and  the 
dead  in  Christ  shall  rise  first: 

"  Then  we  which  are  alive  and  remain  shall  be  caught  up  together 
with  them  in  the  clouds,  to  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air." 

Here  is  the  most  distinct  prediction  possible,  both  of  the  event 
which  was  to  happen  and  of  the  limit  of  time  within  which  it  was  to 
tnke  place ;  and,  to  give  it  additional  force,  it  is  specially  declared  to 
be  an  inspired  prophecy  uttered  as  "the  word  of  God." 

The  time  is  distinctly  stated  to  be  in  the  lifetime  of  some  of  the 
existing  generation,  including  Paul  himself,  who  is  to  be  one  of  the 
"we  which  are  alive,"  who  are  not  to  "prevent,"  or  gain  any  pre- 
cedence over,  those  who  have  "fallen  asleep,"  or  died,  in  the  interval 
before  Christ's  coming.  By  no  possibility  can  this  be  construed  to 


MIRACLES.  133 

mean  a  coming  at  some  indefinite  future  time,  long  after  all  those  had 
died  who  were  to  remain  and  be  caught  up  alive  into  the  clouds.  St. 
Paul  doubtless  meant  what  he  said,  and  firmly  believed  that  he  was 
uttering  an  inspired  prophecy  which  would  certainly  be  fulfilled.  But 
it  is  certain  that  it  was  not  fulfilled.  Paul  and  all  Paul's  contem- 
poraries have  been  dead  for  1,800  years,  and  the  shout,  the  voice  of 
the  Archangel,  and  the  trump  of  God,  have  never  been  heard.  What 
is  this  but  an  absolutely  irresistible  demonstration  that  prophecy  not 
only  fails  to  prove  inspiration,  but,  on  the  contrary,  by  its  failure  dis- 
proves it,  and  shows  that  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Paul  were  as  liable  to 
make  mistakes  as  any  of  the  hundreds  of  religious  writers  who,  in  later 
times,  have  prophesied  the  approaching  end  of  the  world  or  advent 
of  the  millennium. 

The  evidence  for  miracles,  therefore,  must  be  taken  on  its  own 
merits,  without  aid  from  any  preconceived  theory  that  it  is  sinful  to 
scrutinize  it  because  the  books  in  which  it  is.  contained  are  inspired. 
Applying  to  it  impartially  the  ordinary  rules  of  evidence,  let  us  see 
what  it  amounts  to,  for  that  which  is  really  the  test  case  of  all  other 
miracles,  that  of  the  Resurrection. 

The  witnesses  are  St.  Paul  and  the  authors  of  the  four  Gospels 
according  to  St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  and  St.  John.  Of  these, 
St.  Paul  is  in  some  respects  the  best.  When  a  witness  is  called  into 
court  to  give  evidence,  the  first  question  asked  is,  "Who  are  you? 
Gi\re  your  name  and  description."  St.  Paul  alone  gives  a  clear  answer 
to  this  question.  There  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  an  historical  per- 
sonage, who  lived  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  described  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  and  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  is  a  genuine 
letter  written  by  him.  In  this  Epistle  he  says: 

"For  I  delivered  unto  you  first  of  all  that  which  I  also  received, 
how  that  Christ  died  for  our  sins  according  to  the  scriptures ; 

"And  that  he  was  buried,  and  that  he  rose  again  the  third  day 
according  to  the  scriptures : 

"And  that  he  was  seen  of  Cephas,  then  of  the  twelve : 

"After  that,  he  was  seen  of  above  five  hundred  brethren  at  once; 
of  whom  the  greater  part  remain  unto  this  present,  but  some  are  fallen 
asleep. 

"  After  that,  he  was  seen  of  James  ;  then  of  all  the  apostles. 

"  And  last  of  all  he  was  seen  of  me  also,  as  of  one  born  out  oi 
due  time." 

This  is  undoubtedly  very  distinct  evidence  that  the  appearances 
described  by  St.  Paul  were  currently  believed  in  the  circle  of  early 
Christians  at  Jerusalem  within  twenty  years  of  their  alleged  occur- 
rence. 

This  is  strong  testimony,  but  it  is  weakened  by  several  considera- 
tions. In  the  first  place,  we  know  that  Paul's  frame  of  mind  in  regard 
to  miracles  was  such  as  to  make  it  certain  that  he  would  take  them  for 
granted,  and  not  attempt  to  examine  critically  the  evidence  on  which 
they  were  founded,  and  this  was  doubtless  the  frame  of  mind  of  those 
from  whom  he  received  the  accounts.  Again,  he  places  all  the 
appearances  on  the  same  footing  as  that  to  himself,  which  was  clearly 
of  the  nature  of  a  vision,  or  strong  internal  impression,  rather  than 
of  an  objective  reality.  Upon  this  vital  point,  whether  the  appearances 
which  led  to  the  belief  in  Christ's  resurrection  were  subjective  or 
objective — that  is,  were  visions  or  physical  realities— Paul's  testimony 


134      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

therefore  favors  the  former  view,  which  is    quite  consistent  with  the 
laws  of  Nature  and  with  experience  in  other  cases. 

And  finally,  St.  Paul's  account  of  the  appearances  is  altogether 
different  from  those  of  the  other  witnesses,  viz.,  the  four  Evangelists. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  testimony  of  the  four  Gospels  we 
are  confronted  by  a  first  difficulty  :  Who  and  what  are  the  witnesses  t 
What  is  really  known  of  them  is  this :  Until  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  they  are  never  quoted,  and  were  apparently  unknown.  Some- 
where about  150  A.E.,  for  the  exact  date  is  hotly  disputed,  we  find  the 
first  quotations  from  them,  and  from  that  time  forwards  the  quotations 
become  more  frequent  and  their  authority  increases,  until  finally  they 
superseded  all  the  other  narratives  current  in  the  early  Church,  such 
as  the  '•  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews,"  and  the  "  Pastor  "  of  Hermas,  and 
are  embodied  in  the  canon  of  inspired  writings  of  the  New  Testament. 
From  the  earliest  time  where  there  is  any  distinct  recognition  of  them, 
they  appear  to  have  been  attributed  to  the  Evangelists  whose  names 
they  bear,  viz.,  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John. 

When  we  look  to  internal  evidence  to  give  us  some  further  clue  as 
to  their  authorship  and  date,  we  at  once  meet  with  a  great  difficulty. 
The  three  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke,  are  called  "  Synop- 
tic," because  they  give  what  is  substantially  the  same  narrative  of  the 
same  facts  arranged  in  the  same  order,  and  the  same  sayings  and 
parables  giving  the  same  view  of  the  character  and  teaching  of  Jesus. 
In  whole  passages  this  resemblance  is  not  merely  substantial  but  literal^ 
so  that  we  cannot  suppose  it  to  arise  merely  from  following  the  same 
oral  tradition,  and  cannot  doubt  that  the  authors  must  have  copied 
verbatim  either  from  one  another  or  from  some  common  manuscript. 
But  then  comes  in  this  perplexing  circumstance.  After  passages  of 
almost  literal  identity  come  in  statements  which  are  inconsistent  with 
those  of  the  other  Gospels  and  narratives  of  important  events  which 
are  either  altogether  wan  ting  or  quite  differently  described  in  them. 

Thus,  in  the  vital  matter  of  the  Resurrection,  Matthew  says  that 
the  disciples  were  especially  commanded  to .  "  go  into  Galilee ;  there 
shall  you  see  him,"  and  that  they  did  go  accordingly,  and  there  saw  Him 
on  a  mountain  where  He  had  appointed  them  to  meet  Him;  while  Luke 
distinctly  says  that  "  he  commanded  them  that  they  should  not  depart 
from  Jerusalem,"  and  describes  them  as  remaining  there  and  witnessing 
a  number  of  appearances,  including  the  crowning  miracle  of  the  Ascen- 
sion (the  same,  doubtless,  as  that  which  St.  Paul  describes  as  having 
taken  place  in  the  presence  of  more  than  500  witnesses),  of  which 
Matthew,  Mark,  and  John  apparently  know  nothing.  And  yet  the 
final  injunction  of  Jesus  to  preach  the  gospel  in  His  name  to  all 
nations  is  given  in  almost  the  same  words  in  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke, 
showing  that  they  must  have  had  before  them  some  common  manu- 
script describing  the  course  of  events  after  the  Crucifixion. 

So  in  minor  matters,  Mark  mentions  the  cure  of  one  blind  manr 
Bartimseus,  who  sat  by  the  roadside  begging ;  in  Matthew  there  are 
two  blind  men,  and  yet  the  dialogue  that  passed — "What  will  ye  that 
I  shall  do  unto  you1?"  "  Lord,  that  our  eyes  may  be  opened  " — is  almost 
word  for  word  the  same.  It  would  seem  that  if  they  did  copy  from 
an  original  manuscript,  they  felt  themselves  free  to  take  any  liberties 
with  it  they  liked,  in  the  way  of  omission  and  alteration. 

The  only  light  thrown  on  this  perplexing  question  of  the  origin  of 
the  Gospels  is  that  afforded  by  the  celebrated  passage  from  Papias. 


MIRACLES.  135 

quoted  by  Eusebius.  Papias  was  Bishop  of  Hieropolis,  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  suffered  martyrdom,  when  an  aged  man,  about  the  year 
164.  He  was  therefore  brought  up  in  personal  contact,  not  with  the 
Apostles  themselves,  but  with  those  who,  like  Polycarp  and  others,  had 
been  their  immediate  disciples,  and  had  known  and  conversed  with 
them.  In  the  passage  quoted  he  states  his  preference  for  oral  tradition 
over  written  documents,  and  his  reasons  for  it.  He  says  :  "  If  I  found 
some  one  who  had  followed  the  first  presbyters,  I  asked  him  what  he 
had  heard  from  them ;  what  said  Andrew  or  Peter,  or  Philip,  Thomas, 
James,  John,  or  Matthew ;  and  what  said  Andrew  and  John  the 
Presbyter,  who  were  also  disciples  of  the  Lord  ;  for  I  thought  I  could 
not  derive  as  much  advantage  from  books  as  from  the  living  and  abiding 
oral  tradition."  And  he  goes  on  to  give  his  reasons  for  not  attaching 
more  weight  to  the  two  written  sources  of  information  which  were  evi- 
dently best  known  and  looked  upon  as  of  most  authority  in  his  time, 
viz.,  the  Gospels  according  to  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark.  He  says  that 
Matthew  wrote  down  in  Hebrew  the  Logia,  or  principal  sayings  and 
discourses  of  the  Lord,  "which  every  one  translated  as  he  best  could," 
evidently  implying  that  these  numerous  translations  were,  in  his  opin- 
ion, loose,  inaccurate,  and  unreliable.  As  regards  Mark,  he  says  that 
"  Mark,  who  had  not  known  the  Lord  personally,  and  had  never  heard 
Him,  followed  Peter  later  as  his  interpreter  ;  and  when  Peter,  in  the 
course  of  his  teaching,  mentioned  any  of  the  doings  or  sayings  of 
Christ,  took  care  to  note  them  down  exactly,  but  without  any  order, 
and  without  making  a  continuous  narrative  of  the  discourses  of  the 
Lord,  which  did  not  enter  into  the  intention  of  the  Apostle.  Thus 
Mark  let  nothing  pass,  jotting  down  a  certain  number  of  facts  as  Peter 
mentioned  them,  but  having  no  other  care  than  to  omit  nothing  of 
what  he  heard,  and  to  change  nothing  in  it." 

This  testimony  of  Papias  is  very  valuable  and  very  instructive. 
In  the  first  place,  it  seems  conclusive  that  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  was 
not  known  to  him,  and  not  received  in  the  early  Christian  Churches  of 
Asia  Minor  as  a  work  of  authority.  Had  it  been  so  received,  Papias 
must  have  known  of  it,  brought  up  as  he  was  at  the  feet  of  men  who 
had  been  John's  disciples,  and  bishop  of  a  Church  closely  connected 
with  those  of  which,  if  there  is  any  faith  in  tradition,  John  had  been 
the  patriarch  and  principal  founder.  And  if  he  had  known  of  such  a 
written  Gospel  as  that  of  St.  John,  and  believed  it  to  have  been  really 
written  by  the  "beloved  disciple,"  the  Apostle  second  only,  if  second, 
to  St.  Peter,  it  is  inconceivable  that  he  should  have  expressed  such  an 
unqualified  preference  for  oral  tradition,  and  made  such  an  almost 
contemptuous  reference  to  written  documents.  He  must  have  said: 
"For,  with  the  exception  of  the  Gospel  of  the  blessed  John,  I  found 
that  little  was  to  be  got  from  books. '' 

It  seems  clear,  therefore,  that  although  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  may 
contain  genuine  reminiscences  of  an  early  date,  and  possibly  some 
which  really  came  from  the  Apostle  himself,  the  work  in  its  present 
form  could  not  have  been  written  by  him,  and  must  have  been  compiled 
at  such  a  late  date  as  to  have  been  unknown  in  the  Christian  Churches 
of  the  East  in  the  time  of  Papias. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  of  which 
Papias  has  equally  no  knowledge,  and  which,  from  internal  evidence, 
appears  to  be  a  later  edition  of  the  two  earlier  Gospels,  or  of  the 
original  manuscripts  from  which  they  were  taken,  altered  in  places  to 


136       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

meet  objections  of  a  later  date,  as  where  the  injunction  to  "go  into 
Galilee;  there  shall  ye  see  him,"  is  changed  into  "as  he  spoke  unto 
you  when  he  was  yet  in  Galilee,"  obviously  to  reconcile  the  statement 
with  the  subsequent  belief  that  the  Ascension  took  place  at  Jerusalem. 

There  remain  the  two  original  Gospels  according  to  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Mark.  Volumes  of  erudition  have  been  written  to  try  and 
reconcile  them  with  one  another,  and  with  the  other  two  Gospels,  and 
to  explain  the  extraordinary  resemblances  and  no  less  extraordinary 
differences.  Translations  have  been  heaped  on  translations,  and 
successive  editions  and  revisions  piled  on  one  another  until  the  edifice 
toppled  over  by  its  own  weight,  but,  after  all,  we  have  nothing  better 
to  rely  on  than  the  statement  of  Papias,  which  there  is  no  reason 
to  mistrust.  The  basis  of  the  three  Synoptic  Gospels  was  probably  a 
collection  of  facts  and  anecdotes  written  down  in  Greek  by  Mark,  and 
of  discourses  written  in  Hebrew  by  Matthew.  These  have  been  worked 
up  subsequently,  at  unknown  datesy  and  by  unknown  authors,  aided 
possibly  by  oral  traditions,  into  connected  narratives  or  biographies  of 
the  life  and  teachings  of  the  Founder  of  the  religion. 

Possibly,  though  by  no  means  certainly,  we  have  in  the  present 
Gospel  according  to  St.  Matthew  the  nearest  approach  to  the  original 
Logia  or  doctrinal  discourses,  and  in  the  present  Mark  the  nearest 
approach  to  the  original  notes  recorded  by  Mark  from  the  dictation  of 
St.  Peter. 

As  regards  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  John,  it  appears  perfectly 
clear,  both  from  the  silence  of  Papias,  the  absence  of  any  reference  to 
it  by  other  early  Christian  Fathers  until  the  end  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, and  still  more  from  internal  evidence,  that  it  could  not  possibly 
have  been  written  by  the  Apostle  whose  name  it  bears.  John,  as  we 
know  from  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  was  one  of  the  pillars  of  the  Christian 
Church  of  Jerusalem,  whose  doctrine  was  in  all  respects  Hebraic,  and 
who  opposed  the  larger  idea  that  a  man  could  be  a  Christian  without 
first  becoming  a  Jew. 

The  writer  of  tne  Gospel  is  not  only  ignorant  of  matters  which 
must  have  been  well  known  to  every  Jew,  but  he  is  positively  prejudiced 
against  Judaism,  and  represents  it  in  an  unfavorable  light.  His 
narrative  of  the  events  of  the  life  of  Jesus,  including  the  miracles,  is 
totally  different  from  that  of  the  Synoptics,  and  his  view  of  His 
character  and  report  of  His  speeches  wide  as  the  poles  asunder.  To 
the  Synoptics  Jesus  is  the  man-Messiah  foretold  by  the  prophets ;  to 
the  author  of  John  He  is  the  "  Logos,"  the  incarnation  of  a  meta- 
physical attribute  of  the  Deity. 

The  terse  and  simple  clearness  of  His  sayings  recorded  by  the 
first,  is  exchanged  in  the  latter  for  an  involved  and  cumbrous  phrase- 
ology reminding  one  of  a  Papal  Encyclical.  The  amiability  and 
"  sweet  reasonableness  "  of  the  Jesus  of  the  Synoptics,  have  become 
acrimonious  unreasonableness  and  egotistical  self-glorification  in  many 
of  the  long  harangues  which  are  introduced  on  the  most  unlikely 
occasions  in  the  fourth  Gospel. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  this  Gospel  can  afford  no  aid  towards 
a  critical  examination  of  contemporary  evidence,  and  that  for  this  we 
must  look  almost  entirely  to  such  remains  of  early  records  as  are  pre- 
served in  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  and  St.  Luke.  With 
these  data,  how  does  the  evidence  stand  as  regards  the  miracles  of  the 
Resurrection  which  are  the  test  cases  of  all  alleged  miracles  *? 


MIRACLES.  137 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  the  oldest  manuscripts  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Mark  stop  at  the  8th  verse  of  the  last  chapter,  and  that 
the  subsequent  verses,  9 — 20,  have  every  appearance  of  being  a  later 
addition  made  to  reconcile  this  Gospel  better  with  the  prevailing  belief 
and  with  the  other  Gospels.  Commentators  discover  a  difference  in 
the  style  and  language,  and  the  appearances  are  described  in  vague 
and  general  language,  very  different  from  the  distinct  details  given  of 
them  in  the  other  Gospels,  and  inconsistent  with  the  formal  statement 
twice  repeated  in  the  genuine  Mark  that  they  were  to  take  place  in 
Galilee.  Moreover,  if  these  verses  were  really  in  the  original  Gospel, 
it  is  inconceivable  how  they  should  have  dropped  out  in  the  oldest 
manuscripts,  while  it  is  perfectly  conceivable  how  they  should  have 
been  added  at  a  later  period,  when  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  began 
to  occupy  themselves  with  the  task  of  harmonizing  the  different 
Gospels. 

But  if  the  genuine  Mark  really  terminated  with  the  8th  verse,  not 
only  is  there  no  .  confirmation  of  the  four  miraculous  appearances, 
including  the  Ascension,  recorded  by  St.  Paul  as  being  currently 
believed  by  the  early  Christians  within  twenty  years  of  their  occur- 
rence, but  there  is  positively  no  mention  of  any  appearance  at  all. 
A  young  man,  clothed  in  white,  tells  three  women  who  went  to  the 
tomb  that  Jesus  is  risen,  and  tnat  they  were  to  tell  His  disciples  and 
Peter  that  they  would  see  Him  in  Galilee ;  an  injunction  which  was 
not  carried  out,  for  the  women  "were  afraid,  neither  said  they  any- 
thing to  any  man." 

In  St.  Matthew  the  young  man  has  become  an  angel,  and  as  the 
women  return  from  the  tomb  Jesus  met  them  and  said,  "All  hail," 
repeating  the  injunction  to  tell  the  disciples  to  go  into  Galilee,  where  the 
Eleven  accordingly  went  into  a  mountain  where  Jesus  had  appointed 
them,  and  "when  they  saw  him  they  worshipped  him:  but  some 
doubted."  This  is  the  whole  of  Matthew's  testimony. 

St.  Luke,  again,  in  his  Gospel  and  Acts  amplifies  the  miraculous 
appearances  almost  up  to  the  extent  described  by  St.  Paul,  though 
with  considerable  differences  both  of  addition  and  omission.  The 
three  women  become  a  number  of  women ;  the  one  angel  or  young 
man  in  shining  clothes,  two ;  the  appearance  to  the  women  disappears ; 
Peter  is  mentioned  as  running  to  the  sepulchre  but  departing  without 
seeing  anything  special  except  that  the  body  had  been  removed ;  the 
first  appearance  recorded  is  that  to  the  two  disciples  walking  from 
Emmaus.  who  knew  Him  not  until  their  eyes  were  opened  by  the 
breaking  of  bread,  when  He  vanished ;  the  next  appearance  is  to  the 
^Eleven  sitting  at  meat  with  closed  doors;  and  finally  there  is  the 
crowning  miracle  of  the  Ascension,  stated  somewhat  vaguely  in  the 
Gospel,  but  with  more  detail  in  the  Acts,  describing  how  He  was  taken 
up  to  heaven  and  received  in  a  cloud,  in  the  sight  of  numerous 
witnesses.  This  is  probably  the  same  miracle  as  that  mentioned  by 
St.  Paul  as  having  occurred  in  the  presence  of  "more  than  five 
hundred  brethren  at  once,  of  whom  the  greater  part  remain  alive  unto 
this  present;"  though  he  mentions  two  subsequent  appearances — one 
to  James  and  a  second  to  all  the  Apostles — of  which  no  trace  is  found 
in  any  other  canonical  narrative.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  all  St.  Luke's 
miracles  are  expressly  stated  to  have  occurred  at  Jerusalem,  where 
Jesus  had  commanded  His  disciples  to  remain,  and  are,  therefore,  in 
direct  contradiction  with  the  statements  of  Matthew  and  Mark,  that 


138       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

whatever  occurred  was  in  Galilee,  where  the  disciples  were  expressly 
enjoined  to  go. 

When  we  come  to  St.  John,  we  find  the  first  part  of  the  narrative 
of  the  other  Gospels  repeated  with  several  variations  and  a  great  many 
additional  details.  Mary  Magdalene  is  alone  and  finds  the  stone 
removed  from  the  sepulchre.  She  tells  Peter  and  John,  who  run 
together  to  the  tomb;  John  outruns  Peter,  but  Peter  first  enters  and 
sees  the  napkin  and  linen  grave-clothes,  but  nothing  miraculous,  and 
they  return  to  their  homes.  Mary  remains  weeping  and  sees,  first  two 
angels,  and  then  Jesus  himself,  whom  she  at  first  does  not  recognize 
and  mistakes  for  the  gardener.  The  walk  to  Emmaus  is  not  mentioned, 
and  the  next  appearance  is  to  the  disciples  sitting  with  closed  doors. 
Another  takes  place  after  eight  days,  for  the  purpose  of  convincing 
Thomas  of  the  reality  of  the  resurrection  in  the  actual  body,  and  here 
apparently  the  narrative  closes  -with  the  appropriate  ending,  "  That 
these  things  are  written  that  ye  may  believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ, 
the  Son  of  God ;  and  that  believing  ye  might  have'  life  through  his 
name."  But  a  supplementary  chapter  is  added,  describing  a  miracu- 
lous draught  of  fishes  and  appearance  to  Peter,  John,  and  five  other 
disciples  at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  in  Galilee,  in  which  the  command  is 
given  to  Peter  to  "  Feed  my  sheep,"  and  an  explanation  is  introduced 
of  what  was  doubtless  a  sore  perplexity  to  the  early  Christian  world, 
the  death  of  St.  John  before  the  coming  of  the  Messiah. 

These  are  the  depositions  of  the  five  witnesses,  Matthew,  Mark, 
Luke,  John,  and- Paul,  in  which  the  verdict  ''proven"  or  uaot  proven" 
must  rest  in  regard  to  the  issue  "miracle"  or  "no  miracle." 

The  mere  statement  of  them  is  enough  to  show  how  insufficient 
they  are  to  establish  any  ordinary  fact,  to  say  nothing  of  a  fact  so 
entirely  opposed  to  all  experience  as  the  return  to  life  of  one  who  had 
really  died.  Suppose  it  were  a  question  of  proving  the  signature  of  a 
will,  what  chance  would  a  plaintiff  have  of  obtaining  a  verdict  who 
produced  five  witnesses,  four  of  whom  could  give  no  certain  account 
of  themselves,  while  the  fifth  spoke  only  from  hearsay,  and  the  details 
to  which  they  deposed  were  hopelessly  inconsistent  with  one  another 
as  regards  time,  place,  and  other  particulars'?  The  account  of  the 
Ascension  brings  this  contradiction  into  the  most  glaring  light. 
According  to  St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul  this  miracle  took  place  at  Jeru- 
salem, in  the  presence  of  a  large  number,  St.  Paul  says  over  500 
persons,  before  whose  eyes  Jesus  was  lifted  up  in  the  body  into  the 
clouds,  and  more  than  half,  or  over  250  of  these  witnesses,  remained 
alive  for  at  least  twenty  years  afterwards  to  testify  to  the  fact. 
Consider  what  this  implies.  Such  an  event  occurring  publicly  in  the 
presence  of  500  witnesses  is  not  like  an  appearance  to  a  few  chosen 
disciples  in  a  room  with  closed  doors:  it  must  have  been  the  talk  of 
all  Jerusalem. 

The  prophet  who  had  shortly  before  entered  the  city  in  triumphal 
procession  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  multitude,  and  who,  a  few 
days  afterwards,  by  some  sudden  revolution  of  popular  feeling,  had 
become  the  object  of  mob-hatred;  who  had  been  solemnly  tried, 
condemned,  and  executed;  that  this  prophet  had  been  restored  to  life 
and  visibly  translated  in  the  body  to  heaven  in  the  presence  of  more 
than  500  witnesses,  must  inevitably  have  caused  an  immense  sensation. 
However  prone  the  age  might  be  to  believe  in  miracles,  such  a  miracle 
as  this  must  have  startled  everyone.  The  most  incredulous  must  have 


MIRACLES.  f          139 

been  converted ;  the  High  Priest  and  Pharisees  must,  in  self-defence, 
have  instituted  a  rigid  inquiry ;  the  Proconsul  must  have  reported  to 
jftome ;  Josephus,  who,  not  many  years  afterwards,  wrote  the  annals 
of  the  Jews  during  this  period  with  considerable  detail,  must  have 
known  of  the  occurrence  and  mentioned  it. 

And  above  all,  Matthew,  Mark,  and  John  must  have  been  aware  of 
the  occurrence ;  and  in  all  probability,  Matthew,  John,  and  Peter,  from 
whom  Mark  derived  his  information,  must  have  been  among  the  500 
eye  witnesses.  How  then  is  it  possible  that,  if  the  event  really  occurred, 
they  not  only  should  not  have  mentioned  it,  but  partly  by  their  silence, 
and  partly  by  their  statement  that  they  went  into  Galilee,  have  virtually 
contradicted  it.  The  Ascension,  if  true,  was  a  capital  fact,  not  only 
crowning  and  completing  the  drama  of  Christ's  life  which  they  were 
narrating  with  its  most  triumphant  and  appropriate  ending,  but  con- 
firming, in  the  strongest  possible  manner,  the  doctrine  for  which 
they  were  contending,  that  He  was  not  an  ordinary  man  or  ordinary 
prophet,  but  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  God,  who  had  redeemed  the 
world  from  its  original  curse  and  conquered  sin  and  death.  One 
might  as  well  suppose  that  any  one  writing  the  life  of  Wellington 
would  omit  the  Battle  of  Waterloo  as  that  any  one  writing  the  life  of 
Christ  would  knowingly  and  wilfully  omit  all  mention  of  the  Ascension. 
It  must  be  evident  that  whoever  wrote  the  original  manuscripts  from 
which  the  Gospels  of  Matthew,  Mark,  and  John  were  compiled,  must 
either  never  have  heard  of  the  Ascension,  or  having  heard  of  it  did 
not  believe  it  to  be  true.  This  must  also  apply  to  the  other  miracu- 
lous appearances  said  to  have  occurred  at  Jerusalem.  How  was  it 
possible  for  writers  who  knew  of  them  to  make  no  mention  of  them, 
and  virtually  contradict  them  by  asserting  that  they  did  not  remain  at 
Jerusalem,  but  went  to  Galilee  in  obedience  to  a  command  to  that 
effect,  and  that  the  final  parting  of  Jesus  from  His  disciples  took 
place  there? 

The  most  unaccountable  fact  is  the  total  silence  of  Mark,  who 
was  nearest  the  fountain-head  if  he  derived  his  information  from  St. 
Peter,  as  to  these  miraculous  appearances.  If  his  Gospel  ended  with 
verse  8  of  chapter  xvi.,  as  the  oldest  manuscripts  and  the  internal 
evidence  of  the  postscripts  afterwards  added  appear  to  prove,  there 
is  absolutely  no  statement  of  any  such  appearance  at  all.  Nothing  is 
said  but  that  three  women  found  the  tomb  empty  and  saw  a  young 
man  clothed  in  white,  who  told  them  that  Jesus  had  risen  and  gone 
into  Galilee.  Now,  if  there  is  one  fact  more  certain  than  another 
about  miraculous  legends,  it  is  that  as  long  as  they  have  any  vitality 
at  all,  they  increase  and  multiply  and  do  not  dwindle  and  diminish. 
We  have  an  excellent  example  of  this  in  the  way  in  which  a  whole 
cycle  of  miracles  grew  up  in  a  short  time  about  the  central  fact  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket. 

If,  therefore,  Matthew  and  Mark  knew  nothing  of  the  series  of 
miracles,  which  from  St.  Paul's  statement  we  must  assume  to  have  been 
currently  believed  by  tho  early  Christians  twenty  years  after  the  death 
of  Christ,  the  only  possible  explanation  is  that  their  Gospels  were 
compiled  from  narratives  which  had  been  written  at  a  still  earlier  date, 
before  these  miracles  had  been  heard  of. 

We  must  suppose  that  Mark  really  wrote  down  what  he  heard 
from  Peter,  and  that  Peter,  being  a  truthful  man,  though  he  probably 
had  a  sincere  general  belief  that  Christ  had  risen,  declined  to  state  facts 


140      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

which  he  knew  had  never  occurred.  This  is  in  entire  accordance  with 
what  we  find  in  the  whole  history  of  ecclesiastical  miracles,  from  those 
recorded  in  Scripture  down  to  those  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  in  the  sixteenth.  Innu- 
merable as  are  the  accounts  of  miracles  said  to  have  been  wrought  by 
relics  or  by  other  holy  persons,  there  is  no  instance  of  any  statement 
by  any  credible  person  that  he  had  himself  worked  a  real  miracle. 
St.  Augustine  describes  in  detail  many  wonderful  miracles,  including 
resurrections  from  the  dead,  which  he  said  had  been  wrought  to  his 
own  knowledge,  within  his  own  diocese  of  Hippo,  by  the  relics  of  the 
martyr  Stephen.  In  fact,  he  says  that  the  number  of  miracles  thus 
wrought  within  the  last  two  years  since  when  these  relics  had  been  at 
Hippo,  was  at  least  seventy.  This  testimony  is  far  more  precise  than 
any  for  the  Gospel  miracles,  for  it  comes  from  a  well-known  man  of 
high  character,  who  was  on  the  spot  at  the  time,  and  speaks  of  these 
and  many  other  miracles  having  occurred  to  his  own  knowledge.  But 
he  never  asserts  that  he  himself  had  ever  wrought  a  miracle. 

In  like  manner  Paulinus  relates  many  miracles  of  his  master,  St. 
Ambrose,  including  one  of  raising  the  dead;  but  Ambrose  himself  never 
asserts  that  he  performed  a  miracle.  Neither  does  St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
or  any  of  the  25,000  saints  of  the  Roman  calendar  to  whom  miracles 
are  attributed. 

Even  Jesus  himself  seems,  on  several  occasions,  to  have  disclaimed 
the  power  of  working  miracles,  as  when  He  refused  to  comply  with  the 
perfectly  reasonable  request  of  the  Jews  to  attest  His  Messiahship  by 
a  sign,  if  He  wished  them  to  believe  in  it. 

There  is  every  reason,  therefore,  to  believe  that  when  we  find 
narratives  making  no  mention  of  important  miracles  which  were  after- 
wards commonly  received,  they  must  be  taken  from  records  of  an 
earlier  date,  and  proceeding  directly  from  those  who,  if  the  miracles 
were  true,  would  have  been  the  principal  eye-witnesses  to  vouch  for 
them.  But,  if  this  be  so,  how  near  to  the  fountain-head  do  these  narra- 
tives carry  us?  We  lose  the  miracles,  but  in  compensation  we  get 
what  may  be  considered  fresh  and  lively  narratives  of  the  life  and 
conversation  of  Jesus,  and  confirmation  both  of  His  being  an  historical 
personage,  and  of  the  many  anecdotes  and  sayings  which  depict  His 
character,  and  bring  Him  before  us  as  He  really  lived.  The  mythical 
theory  cannot  stand  which  found  in  every  saying  and  action  an  ex  post 
facto  attempt  to  show  that  He  fulfilled  prophecies  and  realized 
Messianic  expectations.  We  can  see  Him  walking  through  the  fields 
on  a  Sunday  afternoon  with  His  disciples,  plucking  ears  of  corn,  and 
rebuking  the  Pharisees  for  their  puritanical  adherence  to  the  letter  of 
the  observance  of  the  Sabbath ;  we  can  see  Him  taking  little  children 
in  His  arms,  and  talking  familiarly  at  the  well  with  the  woman  of 
Samaria;  we  can  hear  Him  preaching  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and 
dropping  parables  from  His  mouth  like  precious  pearls  of  instruction 
in  love,  charity,  and  all  Christian  virtues.  We  can  sympathize  with 
the  agony  in  the  garden  as  with  a  real  scene,  and  hear  the  despairing 
cry,  "My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  mef ' 

It  seems  to  me  that  faith  in  the  reality  of  scenes  like  these  is  worth 
a  good  deal  of  faith  in  the  metaphysical  conundrums  of  the  Athanasian 
Creed,  or  in  the  actual  occurrence  of  incredible  miracles. 

Another  argument  in  favor  of  the  early  date  and  genuine  character 
of  the  primitive  records  which  have  been  worked  up  in  the  Synoptic 


MIRACLES.  141 

Gospels,  is  afforded  by  the  sayings  attributed  to  Jesus.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  imagine  that  these  could  be  the  invention  of  a  later  age,  when 
theological  questions  of  faith  and  doctrine  had  absorbed  almost  the 
entire  attention  of  the  Christian  world.  We  have  already  seen  how 
wide  is  the  difference,  both  as  regards  style  and  phase  of  thought, 
between  the  discourses  reported  in  the  fourth  Gospel  and  those  of  the 
Synoptics.  No  one  writing  in  the  second  or  towards  the  end  of  the 
first  century,  or  even  earlier  in  the  religious  atmosphere  of  St.  Paul's 
Epistles,  could  have  composed  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  or  the  Lord's 
Prayer.  The  parables  and  maxims,  instead  of  teaching  nothing  but  a 
pure  and  sublime  morality  in  simple  language,  must  have  contained 
references  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos,  and  the  disputes  between  the 
Jewish  and  the  Gentile  Christians.  Even  if  these  discourses  had  passed 
long  through  the  fluctuating  medium  of  oral  tradition,  they  must, 
when  finally  reduced  to  writing,  have  shown  many  traces  of  the  theo- 
logical questions  which  agitated  the  Christian  world.  The  only 
explanation  is  that  Apostles  like  St.  Matthew,  and  St.  Peter  through 
Mark,  really  recorded  these  sayings  in  writing  while  they  were  fresh 
in  memory,  and  that  their  authority  secured  them  from  adulteration. 

At  the  same  time  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  while  portions  of 
the  original  narrative  appear  to  carry  us  back  very  near  to  the 
fountain-head,  a  large  part  of  the  Gospels  in  their  present  form  is 
evidently  of  much  later  date  and  of  uncertain  origin.  It  is  clear  that 
Papias,  writing  about  the  year  150,  knew  nothing  of  the  Gospels  of 
Luke  and  John,  and  nothing  of  those  of  Matthew  and  Mark  in  their 
present  form.  The  discourses  of  Matthew  and  the  disconnected  notes 
of  Mark,  to  which  he  refers,  were  something  very  different  from  the 
complete  histories  of  the  life  and  teaching  of  Jesus  contained  in  the 
present  Gospels.  It  is  equally  clear  that  Justin  Martyr  and  Hege- 
sippus,  who  wrote  about  the  middle  of  the*  second  century,  and  made 
frequent  quotations  of  the  sayings  and  doings  of  the  Lord,  made  them, 
not  from  the  present  canonical  Gospels,  but  from  other  sources  relating 
the  same  things  in  different  order  and  different  language.  "A  Gospel 
according  to  the  Hebrews "  and  '*  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles "  seem  to 
have  been  the  principal  sources  from  which  they  quoted. 

It  is  evident  however,  that  during  the  first  two  centuries  there 
were  a  great  number  of  so-called  Gospels  and  Apostolic  writings 
floating  about  in  the  Christian  world  along  with  oral  traditions.  The 
author  of  Luke  tells  us  this  expressly,  and  later  writers  refer  to  a 
number  of  works  now  unknown  or  classed  as  apocryphal,  and  complain 
of  forged  Gospels  circulated  by  heretics.  None  of  these  writings,, 
however,  seem  to  have  had  any  peculiar  authority  or  been  considered 
as  inspired  Scripture,  which  term  is  exclusively  confined  to  the  Old 
Testament,  until  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 

At  length,  by  a  sort  of  law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  the  present 
Gospels  acquired  an  increasing  authority  and  superseded  the  other 
works  which  had  competed  with  them ;  but  the  selection  was  deter- 
mined to  a  great  extent,  not  by  those  principles  of  criticism  which 
would  now  be  applied  to  historical  records,  but  by  doctrinal  consider- 
ations of  the  support  they  gave  to  prevalent  opinions.  In  other 
words,  orthodoxy  and  not  authenticity  was  the  test  applied,  and  it  is 
probable  that  no  Christian  Father  of  the  second  or  third  century 
would  have  hesitated  to  reject  an  early  manuscript  traceable  very 
clearly  to  an  Apostle,  in  favor  of  a  later  compilation  of  doubtful  origin,. 


142       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

if  the  former  contained  passages  which  seemed  to  favor  heretical  views, 
while  the  latter  omitted  those  passages,  or  altered  them  in  a  sense 
favorable  to  orthodoxy. 

To  sum  up  the  matter,  it  appears  that  while  the  antecedent 
improbability  of  miracles  has  been  enormously  increased  by  the  con- 
stant and  concurrent  proofs  of  the  permanence  of  the  laws  of  Nature, 
the  evidence  for  them  when  dispassionately  examined,  is  altogether 
insufficient  to  establish  even  an  ordinary  fact. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
CHRISTIANITY  WITHOUT  MIRACLES. 

CAN  Christianity  continue  to  exist  without  miracles? 
To  answer  this  question  we  must  distinguish  between  'practi 
cal  and  theoretical  Christianity.     The  essence  of  practical  Christianitj7 
consists  in  such  a  genuine  acceptance  of  its  moral  teaching,  and  love 
and  reverence  for  the  life  and  character  of  its  Founder,  as  may  influ- 
ence conduct,  and  be  a  guide  and  support  in  life.     Theoretical  Chris- 
tianity is  that  which    professes  to  teach  a  complete  theory  of   the 
creation  of  the  world  and  man,  of  the  relations  between  man  and  his 
Creator,  and  of  his  position  and  destiny  in  a  future  state  of  existence. 

The  former  needs  no  miracles.  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and 
St.  Paul's  description  of  Christian  charity,  carry  their  own  proof  with 
them,  and  such  parables  as  that  of  the  Good  Samaritan  require  no 
support,  either  from  historical  evidence  or  from  supernatural  signs,  to 
come  home  to  every  heart  whether  in  the  first  or  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  fact  that  the  son  of  a  Jewish  mechanic,  born  in  a  small 
town  of  an  obscure  province,  without  any  special  aid  from  position, 
education,  or  other  outward  circumstance,  succeeded,  by  the  sheer  force 
of  the  purity  and  loveliness  of  his  life  and  teaching,  in  captivating  all 
hearts  and  founding  a  religion  which  for  nineteen  centuries  has  been 
the  main  civilizing  influence  of  the  world  and  the  faith  of  its  noblest 
men  and  noblest  races ;  this  fact,  I  say,  is  of  itself  so  admirable  and 
wonderful  as  not  to  require  the  aid  of  vulgar  miracles  and  metaphysical 
puzzles  in  order  to  be  recognized  as  worthy  of  the  highest  reverence. 
And  when  such  a  life  was  crowned  by  a  death  which  remains  the 
highest  type  of  what  is  noblest  in  man,  self-sacrifice  in  the  cause  of  truth 
and  for  the  good  of  others,  we  may  well  call  it  divine,  and  not  quarrel 
with  any  language  or  any  forms  of  worship  which  tend  to  keep  it  in 
vierw  and  hold  it  up  to  the  world  as  an  inducement  to  a  higher  life. 

Miracles  are  not  .only  unnecessary  for  a  faith  of  this  description, 
but  are  a  positive  hindrance  to  it.  To  put  it  at  the  lowest,  miracles,  in 
an  age  which  has-  learned  the  laws  of  Nature,  must  always  be  open  to 
grave  doubts,  and  thus  throw  doubt  on  the-  reliability  of  the  narratives 
which  are  supposed  to  depend  on  them.  Moreover,  the  touching 
beauty  and  force  of  example  of  the  life  of  Jesus  are  almost  lost  if  He 
is  evaporated  into  a  sort  of  supernatural  being,  totally  unlike  any  con- 
ceivable member  of  the  human  family.  We  may  strive  to  model  our 
conduct  at  a  humble  distance  on  that  of  the  man  Jesus,  the  carpenter's 
son,  whose  father  and  mother,  brothers  and  sisters,  were  familiar 


CHRISTIANITY   WITHOUT  MIRACLES.  143 

figures  in  the  streets  of  Nazareth,  but  hardly  on  that  of  a  "Logos," 
the  incarnation  of  a  metaphysical  conception  of  an  attribute  of  the 
Deity,  who  existed  before  all  worlds  and  by  whom  all  •  things  were 
made. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  miracles  are  indispensable  for  the  dogma, 
or  theoretical  side  of  Christian  theology.  Let  us  consider  frankly 
what  this  dogma  is,  and  how  far  it  is  true — that  is,  consistent  or  incon- 
sistent with  known  and  indisputable  facts. 

The  Christain  dogma  cannot  be  better  stated  than  in  the  words 
of  St.  Paul,  who  was  its  first  inventor,  or,  at  any  rate,  the  first  by  whom 
it  was  elaborated  into  a  complete  theory. 

"For  as  in  Adam  all^  die,  even  so  in  Christ  shall  all  be  made 
alive." 

This  may  be  expanded  into  the  following  propositions : 

1.  That  th'e  Old  Testament  is  miraculously  inspired,  and  contains 
a  literally  true  account  of  the  creation  of  the  world  and  of  man/ 

2.  That,  in  accordance  with  this  account,  the  material  universe, 
earth,  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  all  living  things  on  the  earth  and  in 
the  seas,  were  created  in  six  days,  after  which  God  rested  on  the 
seventh  day. 

3.  That  the  first  man,  Adam,  was  created  in  the  image  of  God  and 
after  His  own  likeness,  and  placed,  with  the  first  woman,  Eve,  in  the 
Garden  of  Eden,  where  they  lived  for  a  time  in  a  state  of  innocence, 
and  holding  familiar  converse  with  God. 

4.  That  by  an  act  of  disobedience  they  fell  from  this  high  state, 
were  banished  from  the  Garden,  and  sin  and  death  were  inflicted  as  a 
penalty  on  them  and  their  descendants. 

5.  That  after  long  ages,  during  which  mankind  remained  under 
this  curse,  God  sent  His  Son,  who  assumed  human  form,  and  by  His 
sacrifice  on  the  cross  appeased  God's  anger,  removed  the  curse,  and 
destroyed  the  last  enemy,  death,  giving  a  glorious  resurrection  and 
immortal  life  to  those  who  believed  on  Him. 

This  theory  is  a  complete  one,  which  hangs  together  in  all  its 
parts,  and  of  which  no  link  can  be  displaced  without  affecting  the 
others.  It  is  the  theory  which  has  been  accepted  by  the  Christian 
world  since  its  first  promulgation ;  and,  although  expounded  with 
metaphysical  refinements  in  the  Athanasian  Creed,  and  set  forth  with 
all  the  gorgeous  surroundings  of  poetical  imagination  in  Milton's 
"Paradise  Lest,"  it  remains  in  substance  Sb.  Paul's  theory,  that  "-as 
in  Adam  all  die,  ever* so  in  Christ  shall  all  be  made  alive." 

It  is  obvious  that  this  theory  is  open  to  grave  objections  on  moral 
grounds.  It  is  more  in  the  character  of  a  jealous  Oriental  despot  than 
of  a  loving  and  merciful  Father,  to  inflict  such  a  punishment  on 
hundreds  of  millions  of  unoffending  creatures  for  an  act  of  disobedi- 
ence on  the  part  of  a  remote  ancestor.  And  it  is  still  more  inconsist- 
ent with  our  modern  ideas  of  justice  and  humanity  to  require  the 
vicarious  sacrifice  of  an  only  Son  as  the  condition .  of  forgiving  the 
offence  and  removing  the  curse. 

Nevertheless  it  must  be  admitted  that,  notwithstanding  these 
objections,  and  harsh  as  the  theory  is,  it  has  had  a  wonderful  attrac- 
tion for  many  of  the  highest  intellects  and  noblest  nations  of  the 
human  race. 

It  was  the  creed  of  Luther,  Cromwell,  and  Milton,  and  the  inspir- 
ing spirit  of  Scotch  Presbyterianism  and  English  Puritanism.  It  has* 


144       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

inspired  great  men  and  great  deeds,  and  although  responsible  for  a 
good  deal  of  persecution  and  fanaticism,  it  must  always  be  spoken  of 
with  respect,  as  a  creed  which  has  had  a  powerful  effect  in  raising 
men's  minds  from  lower  to  higher  things,  and  has  on  the  whole  done 
good  work  in  its  time. 

But  the  question  of  its  continuance  as  a  creed  which  it  is  possible 
for  sincere  men  to  believe,  as  literally  and  historically  true,  depends 
not  on  wishes  and  feelings,  or  on  reverence  for  the  past,  but  on  hard 
facts.  Is  it  or  is  it  not  consistent  with  what  are  now  known  to  be  the 
real  truths  respecting  the  constitution  of  the  universe  and  the  origin 
of  life  and  of  man? 

To  state  this  question  is  to  answer  it.  '.There  is  hardly  one  of  the 
facts  shown  in  the  preceding  chapters  to  be  the  undoubted  results  of 
modern  science  which  does  not  shatter  to  pieces  the  whole  fabric.  It 
is  as  certain  as  that  two  and  two  make  four  that  the  world  was  not 
created  in  the  manner  described  in  Genesis ;  that  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  are  not  lights  placed  in  the  firmament  or  solid  crystal  vault  of 
heaven  to  give  light  upon  the  earth ;  that  animals  were  not  all  created 
ii>one  or  two  days,  and  spread  over  the  earth  from  a  common  centre 
in  Armenia,  after  having  been  shut  up  in  pairs  for  forty  days  in  an 
ark,  during  a  universal  deluge.  And  finally,  that  man  is  not  descended 
from  an  Adam  created  quite  recently  in  God's  image,  and  who  fell 
from  a  high  state  by  an  act  of  disobedience,  but  from  a  long  series  of 
Palaeolithic  ancestors,  extending  back  certainly  into  the  Glacial  and 
probably  into  the  Tertiary  period,  who  have  not  fallen  but  progressed, 
and  by  a  slow  and  painful  process  of  evolution  have  gradually  developed 
intelligence,  language,  arts,  and  civilization,  from  the  very  rudest  and 
most  animal-like  beginnings. 

Belief  in  inspiration,  the  very  key-stone  of  the  system,  becomes 
impossible  when  it  is  shown  that  the  accounts  given  of  such  important 
matters*  in  the  writings  professing  to  be  inspired  are  manifestly  untrue ; 
and  when  the  ordinary  rules  of  criticism  are  brought  to  bear  upon 
these  writings  it  is  at  once  seen  that  they  are  compilations  of  different 
ages  from  various  and  uncertain  sources. 

The  improbability  of  miracles  is  enormously  increased  by  the 
proof  of  the  uniform  operation  of  natural  law  throughout  the  vast 
domains  of  space,  time,  matter,  and  life ;  and  where  the  supernatural 
was  formerly  considered  to  be  a  matter  of  every-day  occurrence,  it  has 
vanished  step  by  step,  until  only  the  last  vestige  of  it  is  left  in  a 
possible  belief  in  some  of  the  more  important  and  impressive  miracles 
of  the  Christian  dispensation.  Even  this  faint  belief  is  manifestly 
founded  more  on  reverence  for  tradition,  and  love  of  the  religion 
which  the  miracles  are  supposed  to  support,  than  on  'n.rv  dispassionate 
view  of  the  evidence  on  which  they  rest.  Tried  by  tiio  ordinary  rules 
of  evidence,  it  is  apparent  that  it  is  contradictory  and  uncertain,  and 
not  such  as  would  be  sufficient  to  establish  in  a  court  of  law  any  ordi- 
nary fact,  such  as  the  execution  of  a  deed.  It  is  apparent  also  that 
the  evidence  for  the  most  crucial  and  important  of  all  miracles,  that  of 
the  Ascension,  is  not  nearly  so  precise  and  cogent  as  that  for  a  num- 
ber of  early  Christian  and  mediaeval  miracles  which  we  reject  with- 
out hesitation. 

What  follows?  Must  we  reject  these  venerable  traditions  as  old 
wives'  fables  I  I  answer,  No ;  but  we  must  accept  them  as  parables. 

A  great  deal  of  the  best  teaching  of  the  New  Testament  is  con- 


CHRISTIANITY   WITHOUT  MIRACLES.  145 

-veyed  in  the  form  of  parables.  Take  for  instance  that  of  Lazarus  and 
Dives.  No  one  supposes  that  this  is  an  historical  narrative;  that  this 
particular  Jew,  out  of  the  millions  of  poor  and  good  Jews  who  have 
Jived  and  died,  was  actually  taken  up  into  Abraham's  bosom ;  and  that 
the  remarkable  dialogue  across  the  gulf  is  a  literal  transcript  of  an 
iic.ual  conversation.  But  the  moral  is  taught  for  all  time,  that  it  is 
l>ad  for  the  rich  to  indulge  in  selfish  luxury  and  take  no  thought  of  the 
mass  of  poverty  and  misery  weltering  around  them ;  and  that  the  con- 
dition of  the  poorest  of  the  poor,  borne  with  piety  and  resignation, 
may  really  be  better  and  higher  than  that  of  the  selfish  rich.  Apply 
the  same  principle  to  the  dogma  of  the  fall  and  redemption,  and  we 
may  see  in  it  a  parable  of  the  highest  meaning.  Every  one  of  us  must 
be  conscious  of  having  fallen  by  yielding  to  temptation  and  giving 
way  to  animal  passions.  We  may  have  fallen  so  low  that  without 
some  redemption,  or  friendly  influence  from  without,  we  cannot  raise 
-ourselves  from  the  lower  level  and  regain  our  lost  place.  We  can  see 
that  there  are  thousands  round  us,  who,  from  poverty  or  other  adverse 
circumstances,  have  got  immersed  in  evil  conditions  from  which  it  is 
Lopeles.s  to  extricate  themselves  without  friendly  aid.  We  can  see 
also  that  there  is  nothing  more  noble  and  divine  than  to  make  sacri- 
fices in  order  to  be  the  redeemer  who  saves  as  many  souls' as  possible 
from  this  entanglement  of  evil,  and  gives  them  a  chance  of  rising  into 
a  happier  and  better  life  We  may  feel.this,  and  use  as  an  incentive  to 
attempt  some  humble  imitation  of  it  the  parable  which  presents  it  to 
us  in  its  highest  aspect,  and  has  been  the  efficient  means  of  stimulating 
so  many  good  men  to  do  good  works.  This  is  surely  better  than 
paltering  with  the  truth,  and  enervating  our  conscience  and  intelli- 
gence by  professing  to  believe  in  the  literal  historical  accuracy  of 
things  which  have  become  incredible  to  all  thinking  and  educated 
minds.  Of  course,  I  do  not  mean  that  these  dogmas  and  miraculous 
narratives  were  intended  by  the  original  writers  to  be  parables,  but 
only  that  they  have  become  so  to  us ;  and  the  alternative  lies  between 
rejecting  them  altogether  or  accepting  them  as  having  an  allegorical 
meaning  or  latent  truth. 

At  any  rate,  whether  we  like  it  or  not,  this  is  what  we  shall  have 
to  do,  for  the  conclusions  o£  science  are  irresistible,  and  old  forms  of 
.faith,  however  venerable  and  however  endeared  by  a  thousand  associa- 
tions, have  no  more  chance  in  a  collision  with  science  than  George 
Stephenson'scowhad  if  it  stood  on  the  rails  and  tried  to  stop  the  progress 
of  a  locomotive.  It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  a  thing  is  lovely  and  ami- 
able, and  that  its  loss  will  leave  a  blank,  to  ensure  its  continuance.  The 
law  of  Nature  is  progress  and  not  happiness.  Stars,  suns,  planets, 
Jiuman  individuals,  and  human  races  have  their  periods  of  youth,  matu- 

NOTE.— Since  writing  this  chapter,  I  have  seen  with  muc  h  pleasure  an  article 
entitled  "  Christmas,"  by  Matthew  Arnold,  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Contem- 
porary  Review,  which  takes  exactly  the  same  view  of  the  allegorical  or  parabolic 
sense  of  miraculous  narratives.  He  takes  the  instance  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion and  Birth  of  the  Saviour,  and  shows  that  it  was  a  myth  which  grew  up,  almost 
inevitably,  from  the  strong  impression  made  on  ihe  minds  of  early  Christians  by 
the  idea  of  purity  set  forth  by  the  life  and  teaching  of  Jesus,  which  stood  in  such 
striking  contrast  with  the  corruption  of  the  heathen  world.  The  same  idea  led  to  a 
similar  myth  in  the  case  of  Gautama,  the  pure  and  self-sacrificing  founder  of  the 
Buddhist  religion,  and  it  teaches  an  eternal  truth  to  all  who  can  look  b,  low  the 
letter  to  the  spirit  of  the  parable. 


146       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND   MODERN  THOUGHT. 

rity  and  decay,  and  are  continually  being  transformed  into  new  phases. 

The  old  order  changes,  giving  place  to  new, 
Aud  God  fulfills  Himself  in  many  ways. 

Childhood,  with  its  innocence  and  engaging  ways,  passes  into  the 
sterner  and  more  prosaic  attributes  of  the  grown-up  man ;  fancy  decays 
as  reason  ripens ;  simple  faith  is  replaced  by  larger  knowledge ;  and 
the  smooth  brow  of  infancy  is  often  marred  by  wrinkles  of  strife  and 
suffering,  impressed  during  the  more  or  less  successful  struggle  in  the 
battle  of  life;  and  yet  we  could  not  if  we  would,  and  would  not  if  we 
could,  arrest  the  progress  of  Nature,  and  say  that  the  child  shall  never 
grow  into  a  man. 

Such  also  is  the  fate  of  creeds.  They  must  be  transformed  or 
die ;  and  the  best  test  of  the  vitality  and  intrinsic  truth  of  a  religion 
is  just  that  capacity  for  transformation  against  which  theologians 
exclaim  as  sacrilege.  In  this  respect  Christianity  has  a  great  advan- 
tage over  other  religions.  The  pious  souls  who  are  shocked  at  any 
denial  of  the  inspiration  of  Scripture  may  console  themselves  by 
considering  what  has  been  the  fate  of  other  religions  which  have  been 
imprisoned  too  closely  within  the  limits  of  a  sacred  book.  Mahomet- 
anism,  the  religion  of  one  God  and  a  succession  of  prophets  or  great 
men  who  have  taught  his  doctrines,  is  not  in  theory  inconsistent  with 
progress  and  civilization.  But.  Mahomet  unfortunately  wrote  a  book, 
the  Koran,  which,  while  it  contained  much  that  to  the  Arab  mind  was 
sublime  and  beautiful,  was  of  necessity  impregnated  with  the  ideas  of 
the  age  in  which  he  lived;  an  age  of  much  ignorance  and  superstition, 
of  imperfect  social  arrangements,  and  of  barbarous  and  ferocious 
manners.  This  book  came  to  be  accepted  as  the  inspired  word  of 
Allah,  which  it  was  impious  to  question,  to  which  nothing  could  be 
added,  and  from  which  nothing  could  be  taken  away.  Hence  Mahom- 
etanism  has  become  what  we  see  it — a  narrow  and  fanatical  creed, 
incompatible  with  progress  and  free  thought,  and  stereotyping  insti- 
stutions,  such  as  polygamy  and  slavery,  which  are  fatal  to  any  advance 
towards  a  higher  civilization.  From  this  fate  Christianity  has  been 
saved  by  the  fortunate  circumstance  that  its  sacred  books  are  collec- 
tions of  a  variety  of  writings  of  different  Authors  and  different  ages, 
reflecting  such  various  and  often  conflicting  phases  of  thought  and 
belief  that  of  necessity  their  interpretation  was  very  elastic,  and  lent 
itself  readily  to  the  changes  required  by  the  spirit  of  successive  periods 
and  of  different  nationalities.  Wherever  for  a  time  a  system  of 
infallibility  was  enforced,  as  in  Spain  by  the  Inquisition,  Christianity 
became  cruel,  barbarous,  unprogressive,  and  really  very  little  better 
than  the  religion  of  Islam,  to  which  it  closely  approximated.  Decay 
of  faith,  therefore,  in  dogmatic  Christianity  is,  like  other  great  revolu- 
tions of  thought,  a  question,  not  of  absolute  gain  or  absolute  loss,  but 
of  a  balance  between  conflicting  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

The  loss  is  evident  enough,  and  is  set  forth  with  much  eloquence 
and  force  by  the  few  remaining  champions  of  orthodoxy.  The  simple, 
nndoubting  faith,  which  has  been  for  ages  the  support  and  consolation 
of  a  large  portion  of  mankind,  especially  of  the  weak,  the  humble,  and 
the  unlearned,  who  form  an  immense  majority,  cannot  disappear  with- 
out a  painful  wrench,  and  leaving,  for  a  time,  a  great  blank  behind. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  a  great  many  real  and  important- 
advantages  which  have  to  be  set  on  the  credit  side  of  the  account. 


CHRISTIANITY   WITHOUT  MIRACLES.  147 

Intolerance  is  the  shadow  which  dogs  the  footsteps  of  faith,  ar  1 
in  many  cases  more  than  obscures  its  benefits.  When  we  consider  th:.,' 
mass  of  human  misery  which  has  been  occasioned  by  religious  wars 
and  persecutions;  the  ruthless  extirpation  of  the  Albigenses;  the 
slaughter  of  the  saints 

whose  bones 
Lie  scattered  on  the  Alpine  mountains  cold ; 

the  Thirty  Years'  War,  which  desolated  Germany  and  threw  civilization 
back  for  a  century ;  the  civil  wars  of  France ;  the  Spanish  Inquisition ; 
and  a  thousand  other  instances  of  the  baleful  effects  of  religious 
hatreds,  we  can  almost  sympathize  with  those  who  pronounce  religion 
an  invention  of  priests  for  the  promotion  of  evil,  and  exclaim  with  the 
Roman  poet: 

Religio  tantum  potuit  suadere  malorum. 

To  this  must  be  added  the  misery  caused  by  the  belief  in  demon- 
ology  and  witchcraft,  and  the  tortures  inflicted  on  innumerable  inno- 
cent victims  by  prejudices  inspired  by  a  literal  construction  of  passages 
of  the  Old  Testament.  Nor  is  it  a  small  matter  to  have  escaped  from 
the  nightmare  dreams  which  must  have  oppressed  so  many  minds, 
especially  of  the  young  and  imaginative,  in  an  age  when  such  a  book 
as  Dante's  "Inferno5' could  be  written,  and  accepted  as  a  gleam  of 
prophetic  insight  into  the  horrors  of  the  invisible  world. 

Even  in  more  recent  and  humane  times,  intolerance  remained  as 
a  general  mode  of  thought,  inspiring  hatred  of  those  whose  form  of 
belief  differed  from  that  which  was  generally  adopted.  It  is  only 
within  the  present  generation  that  true  tolerance  has  come  to  be 
established  as  the  law  of  modern  thought,  and  men  have  learned  to 
live  together  and  love  one  another,  without  reference  to  intellectual 
differences  of  creed  and  doctrine.  Surely  this  is  a  great  advantage, 
and  we  are  nearer  to  the  true  spirit  of  Christianity  than  in  the  days 
when  a  Birmingham  mob  sacked  Priestley's  house  because  he  pro- 
fessed his  belief  in  the  saying  of  Jesus,  that  "  my  Father  is  greater 
than  I."  We  may  read  the  Athanasian  Creed  less,  but  we  practice 
Christian  charity  more,  in  the  present  than  in  any  former  age. 

Another  great  advantage  is  that  as  freer  thought  has  been 
brought  to  bear  on  the  mysteries  of  religion,  we  have  purged  off  the 
grosser  ideas  and  arrived  at  much  more  enlarged  and  spiritual  con- 
ceptions. Take,  for  instance,  prayer  and  sacrifice.  In  its  crude  form, 
sacrifice  was  a  sort  of  bargain  struck  with  an  unseen  Power,  by  which 
we  hoped  to  obtain  some  favor  which  we  greatly  desired,  in  exchange 
for  giving  up  something  which  we  greatly  valued.  This  is  the  form  in 
which  -sacrifice  appears  in  the  Old  Testament,  in  Abraham's  offer  to 
kill  his  son  Isaac,  and  in  the  record  of  the  Moabitish  stone,  how  the 
king,  when  besieged  in  his  capital,  sacrificed  his  son,  and  by  so  doing 
obtained  the  favor  of  his  God  and  defeated  his  enemies.  In  another 
form,  sacrifice  was  considered  as  a  propitiation  to  appease  the  anger 
of  an  offended  Deity,  pictured  as  a  sort  of  Oriental  despot,  who  must 
have  some  one  for  a  victim,  and  was  not  particular  who  it  might  be ; 
and  even  in  the  Christian  dogma  the  merit  of  the  sacrifice  is  very 
closely  analogous  to  that  of  the  Mayor  of  Calais  who  went  out  to  King 
Edward  with  a  halter  round  his  neck,  ready  to  be  hanged,  so  that  he 
might  save  the  lives  of  his  fellow-citizens. 

Nowadays,  no  one  thinks  of  sacrifice  as  anything  but  the   sacrifice 


143       MODERX  SCIEXCK  AXD  MODLRX  THOUGHT. 

of  lower  instincts  and  passing  temptations  to  a  higher  ideal,  and  the 
voluntary  renunciation  of  selfish  ease  and  pleasure  for  the  good  of 
others. 

In  like  manner,  the  original  idea  of  prayer  was  that  of  obtaining 
a  request  by  flattery  or  importunity,  just  as  a  courtier  might  do  at  the 
court  of  some  earthly  king  of  kings  or  sultan.  It  is  now  spiritualized 
into  the  conception  that  its  effect  is  entirely  subjective;  that  it  never 
really  obtains  any  reversal  of  the  laws  of  Nature,  but  that  it  often 
exalts  the  mind  to  a  frame  in  which  things  otherwise  impossible 
become  possible.  A  German  regiment  marches  to  battle  singing 
Luther's  grand  old  hymn — 

Eiii  feste  Burg  1st  unser  Gott. 

Half  the  regiment  may  be  freethinkers,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true  that 
they  are  more  likely  to  stand  firm  and  win  the  victory  if  they  chant 
the  hymn,  than  if  they  march  in  silence. 

Taking  all  these  things  into  account,  there  is  no  reason  to  despair 
because  the  irresistible  progress  of  science  has  made  us 

Falter  where  we  firmly  trod, 

and  ckanged  a  great  deal  of  what  was  once  fixed  and  certain  faith  into 
vague  aspirations  and  less  definite,  though  larger  and  more  spiritual, 
conceptions. 

There  is  next  to  no  theology  in  the  Christianity  of  the  Synoptic 
Gospels,  which  give  us  by  far  the  nearest  and  most  authentic  record  of 
what  itsN  Founder  actually  taught;  and  it  may  be  that  in  sloughing  off 
the  mythical  legends  and  metaphysical  dogmas  which  have  grown  up 
around  it,  we  shall  be,  in  reality,  not  banishing  the  Christian  religion 
from  the  world,  but  making  it  revert  to  its  more  simple  and  spiritual 
aucestral  type,  in  which  form  all  that  is  really  valuable  in  its  pure  and 
elevated  morality  may  be  incorporated  more  readily  with  practical  life, 
and  assimilated  without  difficulty  with  the  progressive  evolution  of 
modern  thought  and  science. 

At  the  same  time  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  even  Christianity  in 
its  purest  form  does  not  escape  from  the  universal  law  of  polarity,  and 
presents,  not  the  whole  truth,  but  only  one  very  important  side  of 
truth.  It  is  the  religion  of  love,  purity,  gentleness,  and  charity; 
important  virtues,  but  not  all  that  constitute  the  perfection  of  men  or 
nations.  In  fact,  if  carried  to  the  "falsehood  of  extremes,"  its  very 
virtues  become  vices.  It  would  not  work  in  practice,  if  smitten  on  one 
cheek  to  turn  the  other ;  and  any  one  who  attempted  to  follow  literally 
the  precept  of  "  taking  no  thought  for  the  morrow,"  and  trusting  to 
be  fed  like  the  sparrows,  would,  in  modern  society,  come  dangerously 
near  being  what  Ave  call  in  Scotland  a  "ne'er-do-weel,"  that  is  to  say,  a 
soft,  molluscous  sort  of  creature,  who  is  a  burden  on  his  friends,  and 
ends  his  days  as  a  pensioner  on  charity  or  a  writer  of  begging  letters. 
The  foremost  men  and  foremost  races  of  modern  society  are  precisely 
those  who  act  on  the  opposite  principle,  and  do  look  ahead  and  steer 
wisely  and  boldly  amidst  dangers  and  difficulties  for  distant  and 
definite  ends. 

In  one  of  the  old  Norse  Saga  there  is  a  saying  which  has  always 
impressed  me  greatly.  An  aged  warrior,  when  asked  what  he  thought 
of  the  new  religion,  replied:  "I  have  heard  a  great  deal  of  talk  of  the 
old  Odin  and  of  the  new  Christ,  but  whenever  things  have  come  to  a 
real  pinch,  I  have  always  found  that  my  surest  trust  was  in  my  own 
right  arm  and  good  sword." 


CHRISTIANITY   WITHOUT  MIRACLES.  149 

This  strong  self-reliance  and  hardy  courage  to  do  or  to  endure  is, 
beyond  all  doubt,  the  solid  rock  foundation  upon  which  the  manly 
character  of  individuals  and  of  nations  must  be  built  up.  The  softer 
virtues  and  graces  come  ofterwards,  which  are  to  refine  and  adorn, 
and  convert  the  man  into  the  gentle  man,  or  one  of  Nature's  true 
gentlemen.  But  without  the  harder  gifts  of  courage  and  self-help,  n, 
man  is  not  a  man,  and  the  raw  material  is  not  there  out  of  which  to 
fashion  a  Gordon  or  Christian  hero. 

This  may  be  called  the  Norse  pole  as  contrasted  with  the  pole  of 
Christianity,  and  the  perfect  man  is  he  who  can  stand  firmly  between 
the  two  opposites,  controlling  both  and  being  controlled  by  neither. 

While  I  have  thought  it  right,  however,  to  call  attention  to  this 
counter-pole  to  Christianity,  I  should  add  that  with  the  strong,  prac- 
tical Teutonic  races  there  is  not  much  danger  of  erring  on  the  side 
of  too  much  weakness,  humility,  or  asceticism,  and  therefore  the 
influence  of  the  Christian  religion  makes  mainly  for  good.  Modern 
civilization  has  been  formed,  to  a  great  extent,  by  grafting  the  gentler 
virtues  of  the  Gospel  on  the  robust  primitive  stock  of  the  barbarians 
who  overthrew  Rome.  It  is  the  example  and  teaching  of  -fesus,  the 
son  of  the  carpenter  of  Nazareth,  which  have  been  mainly  instrumental 
in  diffusing  ideas  of  divine  love,  charity,  and  purity  throughout  the 
world,  and  humanizing  the  iron-clad  and  iron-souled  warriors,  whose 
trust  was  in  their  stout  hearts  and  strong  right  arms,  and  who  knew 
no  law  but  ,• 

The  good  old  plan, 

That  he  should  take  who  has  the  power, 
And  he  should  keep  who  can. 

In  another  respect  it  is  most  important  that  the  world,  should  as 
far  and  so  long  as  possible,  hold  on  to  Christianity  and  struggle  to  save 
its  essential  spirit  from  the  shipwreck  of  its  theology,  and  the  sheer 
impossibility  of  believing  in  the  literal  and  historical  truth  of  many  of 
its  dogmas. 

The  highest  and  most  consoling  beliefs  of  the  human  mind  are  to 
a  great  extent  bound  up  with  the  Christian  religion.  It'  we  r.sk  our- 
selves frankly  how  much,  apart  from  this  religion  would  remain  of 
faith  in  a  God  and  in  a  future  state  of  existence  the  answer  must  be, 
very  little.  Science  traces  everything  back  to  primeval' atoms  and 
germs,  and  there  it  leaves  us.  How  came  these  atoms  and  energies 
there,  from  which  this  wonderful  universe  of  worlds  has  been  evolved 
by  inevitable  laws?  What  are  they  in  their  essence,  and  what  do  they 
mean?  The  only  answer  is,  it  is  unknowable.  It  is  "  behind  the  veil," 
and  may  be  anything.  Spirit  may  be  matter,  matter  may  be  spirit.  We 
have  no  faculties  by  which  we  can  even  form  a  conception,  from  any 
discoveries  of  the  telescope  or  microscope,  from  any  experiments  in  the 
laboratory,  or  from  any  facts  susceptible  of  real  human  knowledge,  of 
what  may  be  the  first  cause  underlying  all  these  phenomena. 

In  like  manner  we  can  already  to  a  great  extent,  and  probably  in 
a  short  time  shall  be  able  to  the  fullest  extent,  to  trace  the  whole  develop- 
ment of  life  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest;  from  protoplasm,  through 
monera,  infusoria,  mollusca,  vertebrata,  fish,  reptile,  and  mammal,  up 
to  man — and  the  individual  man  from  the  microscopic  egg,  through 
the  various  stages  of  its  evolution  up  to  birth,  childhood,  maturity, 
decline,  and  death.  We  can  trace  also  the  development  of  ilio  human 
race  through  enormous  periods  of  time,  from  the  rudest  beginnings  up 


150       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

to  its  present  level  of  civilization,  and  'show  how  arts,  languages, 
morals,  and  religions  have  been  evolved  gradually  by  natural  laws  from 
primitive  elements,  many  of  which  are  common  in  their  ultimate  form 
to  man  and  the  animal  creation. 

But  here  also  science  stops.  Science  can  give  no  account  of  how 
these  germs  and  nucleated  cells,  endowed  with  these  marvellous 
capacities  for  evolution,  came  into  existence  or  got  their  intrinsic 
powers.  Nor  can  science  enable  us  to  form  the  remotest  conception 
of  what  will  become  of  life,  consciousness,  and  conscience,  when  the 
material  conditions  with  which  they  are  always  associated  while  within 
human  experience,  have  been  dissolved  by  death  and  no  longer  exist. 
We  know  as  little  in  the  way  of  accurate  and  demonstrable  knowledge 
of  our  condition  after  death  as  we  do  of  our  existence — if  we  had  an 
existence — before  birth. 

If  we  turn  for  an  answer  to  these  questions  from  science  to  meta- 
physics we  find  ourselves  in  cloud-land.  Mists  of  fine  phrases  and 
plausible  conjectures  form  into  philosophies,  and  dissolve  away  again 
without  leaving  a  vestige  of  positive  knowledge.  Take  Descartes' 
famous  fundamental  axiom,  "Cogito,  ergo  sum,"  I  think  and  therefore 
I  exist.  Is  it  really  an  axiom?  Does  it  take  us  any  nearer  to  what 
thought  really  is,  and  what  is  the  true  meaning  of  existence  ?  If  the 
fact  that  I  am  conscious  of  thinking  proves  the  fact  that  I  exist,  is  the 
converse  true,  that  whatever  does  not  think  does  not  exist  I  Am  I 
existent  or  non-existent  during  the  seven  or  eight  hours  of  dreamless 
sleep  out  of  every  twenty-four,  when  to  a  certainty  I  am  not  thinking  ? 
Does  a  child  only  begin  to  exist  when  it  begins  to  think?  If  "Cogito, 
ergo  sum "  is  an  intuition  to  which  we  can  trust,  why  is  not  "  Non 
cogito,  ergo  non  sum  "  an  equally  good  foundation  on  whifeh  to  build 
^  system  of  philosophy,  and  spin  out  of  the  brain  an  ideal  system  of 
God,  man,  and  the  universe? 

The  so-called  intuitions  of  metaphysics  seem  really  to  amount  to 
little  more  than  translations  into  philosophical  language  of  our  own 
earnest  wishes  and  aspirations.  We  shudder  at  the  notion  of  annihila- 
tion ;  we  revolt  at  the  idea  that  all  the  high  faculties  of  the  mature 
and  cultivated  mind  are  to  be  extinguished  by  death ;  we  long  for  a 
future  life,  in  which  we  may  again  see  beloved  faces,  and,  pondering 
on  these  things,  we  have  a  strong  impression  that  it  must  not  and 
cannot  be,  which  presently  takes  the  form,  in  some  minds  of  a  philo- 
sophical turn,  of  what  is  called  an  intuition,  on  which  they  proceed  • 
to  build  up  a  demonstration  of  God  and  immortality. 

But,  again,  what  do  they  really  know  more  than  science  has  already 
told  us?  The  essence  of  all  spiritual  existence,  as  far  as  we  know 
anything  of  it,  is  personal  consciousness.  This  clearly  depends  on,  or 
is  indissolubly  associated  with,  a  certain  condition  of  a  material  organ 
—the  brain.  With  a  less  active  condition  of  this  organ,  as  in  sleep, 
personal  consciousness  is  suspended.  In  the  case  of  a  man  recovered 
from  drowning  by  artificial  means,  it  is  gone,  and  the  man  is  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  dead  for  perhaps  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  would 
remain  dead  if  warm  blankets  and  artificial  respiration  did  not  recall 
him  to  life.  Where  and  what  was  he  during  this  interval?  and,  if  his 
personal  identity  and  conscious  existence  were  gone  for  that  quarter  of 
an  hour,  why  and  when  did  they  return?  and,  if  the  Humane  Society's 
men  had  been  less  prompt,  would  they  ever  have  returned? 

These  are  questions  to  which  no  metaphysical  system  that  I  have 
ever  seen  can  return  the  semblance  of  an  answer. 


CHRISTIANITY   WITHOUT  MIRACLES.  151 

Again,  how  is  it  possible  for  philosophy  to  lay  down  as  an  axiom 
ifchat  man  has  an  intuitive  perception  of  a  Deity,  in  the  face  of  the  fact 
ihat  whole  races  of  savage  men  have  no  such  perception,  and  have  not 
got  beyond  rude  fetichismand  a  vague  superstitious  fear  of  ghosts  and 
«vil  spirits,  while  others,  further  advanced,  have  made  their  own 
anthropomorphic  gods,  obviously  from  reflections  of  their  own  faculties 
arid  passions  on  the  distant  mists  of  the  unknown,  like  the  spectres  of 
the  Brocken?  We  can  trace  the  idea  of  Deity,  step  by  step,  from  early 
attempts  to  explain  phenomena  of  nature,  astronomical,  legendary,  and 
linguistic  myths,  and  reverence  for  departed  ancestors  and  heroes,  up  to 
the  philosophical  conceptions  of  a  Plato  or  a  Marcus  Aurelius.  In  the 
same  way  we  can  trace,  step  by  step,  the  transformation  of  the  tribal 
God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  into  the  national  God  of  Israel,  who 
was  at  first  only  better  and  stronger  than  the  gods  of  the  surrounding 
nations,  but  finally  became  the  sole  God  of  the  universe,  degrading 
the  other  gods  to  the  category  of  dumb  idols.  So,  also,  we  can  see  the 
first  crude  anthropomorphic  conceptions  of  this  Deity  gradually  giving 
way  to  purer  and  nobler  ideas.  The  God  who  required  rest  on  the 
seventh  day  becomes  the  Almighty  one  at  whose  word  all  things  were 
created.  The  jealous -and  cruel  God  who  withdrew  His  favor  from  the 
chivalrous  Saul,  because  he  would  not  hew  his  captives  in  pieces  before 
the  Lord,  is  transformed  into  the  God  who  "loves  mercy  and  not  sacri- 
fice." The  God  who  found  after  His  own  heart  the  man  whose  depraved 
mind  could  conceive  such  an  act  of  foul  villainy  as  David  practiced 
towards  Uriah,  and  who  not  only  condoned  the  crime,  but  rewarded  it 
by  giving  the  succession  to  the  son  of  the  adulterous  intercourse  with 
Bathsheba,  has  become  the  God  of  holy  love  and  purity  of  the  New 
^Testament.  At  which  of  these  stages  did  the  philosophical  intuition  of 
God  come  in,  which  is  said  to  be  an  innate  faculty  of  the  human  mind, 
and  the  surest  base  of  all  our  knowledge  of  the  universe?  Where  is 
the  inevitable  intuitive  perception  of  a  personal  Deity  in  the  minds  of 
.some  of  the  deepest  thinkers  and  purest  livers  of  the  present  day,  who, 
like  Herbert  Spencer,  can  discern  nothing  behind  the  veil  but  a  great 
unspeakable  and  unknowable? 

After  all  we  must  fall  back  on  Christianity  for  any  grounds  upon 
which  to  trust,  more  or  less  faintly,  in  the  "larger  hope."  The 
Christian  religion,  apart  from  any  question  of  miracles,  is  an  existing 
fact  It  is  a  fact  which  for  nineteen  centuries  has  proved,  on  the 
"  whole,  in  accordance  with  other  facts  and  with  the  deepest  feelings  and 
highest  aspiration's  of  the  noblest  men  and  women  of  the  foremost 
races  in  the  progressive  march  of  civilization.  Why  do  we  say  that  its 
moral  teachings,  such  as  we  find  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  in 
St.  Paul's  definition  of  Christian  charity,  carry  conviction  with  them 
-and  prove  themselves?  Because  they  accord  with,  and  give  the  best 
expression  to,  feelings,  which  in  the  course  of  evolution  of  the  human 
mind  from  barbarism  to  civilization  have  become  instinctive.  We  may 
be  able  to  trace  their  origin  and  development,  we  may  be  able  to  see 
that  they  are  not  primary  instincts,  implanted  at  birth  like  those  of 
the  lower  animals,  but  secondary  instincts,  formed  by  the  action  of  a 
civilized  environment  on  hereditary  aptitudes.  Still  there  they  are, 
and  being  what  they  are,  and  living  in  the  age  and  society  in  which 
we  actually  live,  they  are  inevitable  and  necessary  instincts,  and  it 
requires  no  train  of  reasoning  or  labored  reflection  to  make  us  feel 
that  "right  is  right,"  and  that  it  is  better  for  ourselves  and  others  to 


152       MODERX  SCIEXCE  AXD   MODERX  THOUGHT. 

act  on  such  precepts  as  those  of  '; loving  our  neighbors  as  ourselves,'" 
and  "  doing  as  we  would  be  done  by,"  rather  than  to  reverse  these 
rules  and  obey  the  selfish  promptings  of  animal  nature.  Of  the  same 
order,  though  less  clear  and  cogent,  are  the  teachings  of  the  Gospel 
respecting  God  and  immortality.  They  are  less  clear  and  less  cogent, 
because  the  only  evidence  by  which  they  could  be  demonstrated  from 
without,  that  of  miracles,  has  broken  clown  and  failed  us;  and  because 
we  cannot  verify  them  experimentally  by  an  appeal  to  facts,  as  we  can 
in  regard  to  the  working  of  moral  laws  and  precepts.  But  it  still 
remains  that  they  are  ideas  which  have  risen  inevitably  in  the  course 
of  the  evolution  of  the  human  mind;  and  that  they  fit  in  with  and 
satisfy,  in  a  way  which  no  other  ideas  can  do,  many  of  the  best  and 
deepest  feelings  which  have  equally  been  developed  in  that  mind,  in 
the  course  of  its  progressive  ascent  from  lower  to  higher  things.  It 
remains  also  that  true  science,  while  it  can  add  nothing  to  this  proof, 
takes  nothing  from  it,  and  while  it  excludes  miracles  and  supernatural 
interference  after  the  order  of  the  universe  has  been  once  established, 
leads  us  back  step  by  step  to  a  great  Unknown,  in  which,  from  the 
very  fact  that  it  is  unknown,  everything  is  possible. 

Further  than  this  it  is  not  possible  to  carry  the  proof.  If  we  are 
to  believe  at  all  in  a  God,  we  must  be  content  to  believe  that  He  knows 
better  than  we  do  what  is  right  and  consistent  with  the  conditions  of 
our  own  existence  and  that  of  the  universe ;  and  thai  part  of  the  scheme 
is,  that  at  a  certain  stage  of  the  development  of  our  race  we  should 
have  to  exchange  the  certainty  of  simple  and  limited  faith  for  the 
fainter  trust  in  a  larger  hope.  We  may,  perhaps,  dimly  discern  some- 
thing analogous  in  the  progress  of  each  individual  from  childhood  to 
manhood.  He  has  to  part  with  many  a  simple  belief  and  unhesitating 
trust,  and  climb  the  hill  of  life  staggering  under  many  a  burden  of 
doubt  and  difficulty;  and  yet  it  is  better  for  him  to  "set  a  stiff  heart  to 
a  steep  brae,  "and  struggle  upwards  while  life  is  in  him,  rather  than  to 
remain  an  innocent  child  playing  at  its  foot. 

Anyhow,  whether  we  like  it  or  not,  this  is  the  fact  we  have  to 
accept ;  but  the  hill  is  steep,  the  burden  heavy,  and  we  may  well  be 
grateful  to  anything  which,  however  vaguely,  helps  and  cheers  us  on 
the  way;  and  from  this  point,  of  view,  the  ideas  of  God  and  of  a  future 
life  taught  by  the  Christian  religion,  accepted  by  BO  many  good  men, 
and  hallowed  by  so  many  venerable  traditions  and  sacred  associations, 
should  be  cherished,  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so  without  shutting 
our  eyes  to  facts  and  indulging  in  conscious  insincerity. 

For  the  same  reason  we  shall  do  well  to  be  tender  with  the  forms 
and  creeds  of  this  religion,  even  when  they  appear  to  be  getting 
obsolete,  and  their  strict  and  literal  interpretation  no  longer  con- 
sistent with  known  truths.  It  is  far  better  that  the  transformation 
requisite  to  bring  them  into  accordance  with  the  evolution  of  modern 
thought  caused  by  the  discoveries  of  science,  should  take  place  gradu- 
ally and  spontaneously  from  within,  rather  than  forcibly  and  abruptly 
from  without.  Evolutionists  specially  ought  to  trust  to  the  healing 
influences  of  time,  and  the  inevitable  though  gradual  survival  of  that 
which  is  most  in  harmony  with  its  existing  environment. 

Already  a  great  deal  has  been  silently  done  in  this  direction. 
Intolerance  and  fanaticism  have  almost  disappeared  from  all  cultured 
minds.  Even  in  the  ranks  of  the  clergy  themselves,  many,  in  all 
denominations,  are  devoting  themselves  more  and  more  to  good  works^ 
and  less  to  theological  disputes  and  sectarian  wranglings. 


PRACTICAL  LIFE.  153 

The  metaphysical  side  of  Christian  dogma,  is  fast  receding  into 
the  far  distance.  The  Athanasian  Creed,  which  once  convulsed 
empires  and  occupied  a  foremost  place  in  the  thought  of  the  age,  has 
become  a  mere  form,  read  once  or  twice  a  year  by  lukewarm  preachers 
to  indifferent  or  scandalized  audiences,  who  would  be  only  too  glad  to 
have  a  decent  excuse  for  dropping  it  out  of  sight  altogether.  Let 
any  sin  -ere  Christian  put  to  himself  candidly  the  question  what  part 
the  "Holy  Ghost,"  or  the  definition  of  the  "Logos,"  really  has  in  the 
living  faith  which  guides  his  actions,  and  he  will  be  astonished  to  find 
into  what  infinitesimal  proportions  these  once  vital  dogmas  have 
actually  faded.  It  will  be  the  same  with  all  dogmas  which,  in  their 
literal  and  historical  interpretation,  contradict  established  facts.  They 
will  be  either  forgotten,  or,  if  they  contain  a  kernel  of  spiritual 
meaning,  will  be  transformed  into  truths  taught  by  parables. 

In  the  meantime,  it  behoves  those  who  see  more  clearly  than 
others  the  absolute  certainty  of  the  conclusions  of  science,  and  the 
inevitably  fatal  results  to  religion  of  staking  its  existence  on  literal 
interpretations  which  h;ive  become  flatly  incredible,  to  do  their  best  to- 
assist  the  transformation  of  the  old  dogmatic  theology  into  a  new 
44 Christianity  without  miracles,"  which  shall  retain  the  essential  spirit, 
the  pure  morality,  the  consoling  beliefs,  and  as  far  as  possible  the 
venerable  forms  and  sacred  associations  of  the  old  faith,  while  placing 
them  in  thorough  accordance  with  freedom  of  thought,  and  with  the 
whole  body  of  other  truths,  discovered  and  to  be  discovered,  respect- 
ing the  universe  and  man. 


CHAPTER  X. 
PRACTICAL   LIFE. 

Self-reyerence,  self-knowledge,  self-control, 
These  three  alone  lead  life  to  sovereign  power. 
Yet  not  for  power ;  that  of  itself 
Would  come  uncalled  for ;  but  to  live  by  rule, 
Acting  the  rule  we  live  by  without  fear, 
And  because  right  is  right  to  follow  right, 
Were  wisdom  in  the  scorn  of  consequence. 

TENNYSON,  (Enone. 

IN  these  lines,  which  he  puts  into  the  mouth  of  the  goddess  of 
wisdom,  Tennyson,  the  same  poet  who  has  already  condensed  the 
essence  of  modern  thought  in  the  lines  already  quoted  from  "Itt 
Memoriam,"  gives  us  what  may  be  well  called  "the  Gospel  of  practical 
life."  It  is  clearly  our  highest  wisdom  to  follow  right,  not  from 
selfish  calculation  or  hope  of  reward,  but  because  "right  is  right;"  in 
other  words,  because  we  have  a  standard  within  us  which  tells  us,  in 
an  unmistakable  voice,  what  to  do  and  what  to  refrain  from  doing. 
For  practical  purposes,  it  is  comparatively  unimportant  how  this 
standard  got  there;  whether,  according  to  old  creeds,  by  direct  inspira- 
tion, or,  as  modern  science  tells  us,  by  the  slow  evolution  of  primitive 
faculties,  and  the  accumulation  through  countless  generations  of 
hereditary  influences  tending  towards  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  both 
of  individuals  and  of  societies,  in  the  struggle  for  life.  In  either  case 
the  standard  is  there,  not  as  a  vague  and  theoretical,  but  as  an. 


154       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND   MODERN  THOUGHT. 

absolute  and  imperative  rule,  and  the  difficulty  is  not  to  discern  it, 
but  to  act  up  to  it. 

It  may  be  that  it  is  to  a  great  extent  the  product  of  education, 
and  depends  on  the  environment  in  which  we  are  brought  up.  It  may 
be  that  if  I  had  been  kidnapped  when  a  child  by  Cornanche  Indians,  t 
should  have  grown  up  with  a  very  different  moral  standard  touching 
the  taking  of  scalps  and  the  practice  of  treacherous  murder.  But  I 
have  not  been  so  kidnapped,  and  having  been  born  and  brought  up  in  a 
civilized  country  of  the  nineteenth  century,  it  is  inevitable  that  outward 
influences  combined  with  inward  capacities  should  give  me  a  conscience, 
which  tells  me  in  clear  enough  accents  whether  I  arn  doing  right  or 
wrong.  And  it  is  equally  certain  that  by  acting  in  accordance  with 
this  conscience,  I  shall,  on  the  whole,  be  doing  better  for  myself  and 
better  for  others  than  by  disregarding  it.  It  is  none  too  easy  to  make 
our  life  even  a  tolerable  approximation  towards  doing  right  for  the 
sake  of  right,  and  it  would  be  folly  to  allow  any  theoretical  considera- 
tions as  to  the  origin  of  the  idea  of  right  to  be  an  excuse  for  relaxing 
any  of  the  constant  and  strenuous  effort  which  is  requisite  to  keep  our 
feet  from  straying  from  the  straight  path.  It  is  much  wiser  to  cast 
around  us  for  influences  and  inducements  to  strengthen  the  inward 
law,  and  to  endeavor  by  clear  insight  to  bring  reason  to  the  aid  of 
faith,  and  enable  us  to  see  intelligently  the  main  causes  both  of  our 
weakness  and  of  our  strength. 

This  is  what  the  poet  does  for  us  in  the  lines  above  quoted. 
Rightly  considered,  <:  self-reverence,  self-knowledge,  and  self-control" 
are  the  three  pillars  which  support  the  edifice  of  a  wise  and  well- 
ordered  practical  life. 

Self-reverence,  in  its  widest  meaning,  includes  the  faculty  of 
forming  some  ideal  standard  superior  to  the  lower  nature  of  animal 
man,  and  recognizing  in  ourselves  some  power  of  approximating  to  it. 
The  higher  the  standard  the  nobler  will  be  the  man  who  cherishes  it 
and  tries  to  attain  to  it,  but  it  is  by  no  means  a  rare  gift  confined  to  a 
few  select  natures.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  the  commonest  and  most 
universal  incentive  to  good  conduct.  Even  in  the  rudest  and  simplest 
form  of  admiration  for  physical  courage,  it  makes  heroes  of  many  a 
common  soldier  and  sailor.  If  poor  Tommy  Atkins,  fresh  from  the 
plough-tail,  stands  firm  in  the  shattered  squares  of  Waterloo,  or  on  the 
bloody  ridge  of  Inkermann,  it  is  because  he  has  been  brought  up  in 
the  fixed  iden,  1  hat  a  Briton  must  not  run  away  from  a  Frenchman  or  a 
Russian. 

In  civil  life  the  idea  of  respectability,  though  not  a  very  elevated 
one  and  apt  to  degenerate  into  narrowness,  and  what  Carlyle  and 
Arnold  sneer  at  as  "Gigmanity"  and  "  Philistinism,"  is  yet  one  of 
Tery  universal  and,  on  the  whole,  beneficial  influence.  A  large  major- 
ity of  the  middle  and  upper  working  classes  lead  decorous  lives  very 
much  because  they  feel  it  incumbent  on  them  to  be  "respectable," 
in  their  own  eyes  and  those  of  their  neighbors.  In  the  case  of  one 
half  of  the  human  race,  the  female  half,  the  feeling  of  self-respect  and 
the  desire  to  be  what  is  called  respectable  afford  the  strongest  and 
most  constantly  present  securities  both  for  good  morals  and  good 
manners.  The  immense  majority  of  British  women  are  modest  maidens 
and  faithful  wives,  not  so  much  from  any  cold  calculation  of  the  bal- 
ance of  advantages,  or  from  fear  of  consequences,  as  from  an  instinct- 
ive feeling  that  they  cannot  be  otherwise  without  losing  caste  and 
forfeiting  their  own  self-respect  and  that  of  their  neighbors. 


PRACTICAL   LIFE.  155 

From  these  common  and  universal  forms  of  "self-reverence"  we 
rise,  step  by  step,  to  the  higher  ideals,  which,  in  every  rank  and  every 
condition  of  life,  give  us  among  gifted  natures  what  may  be  called  the 
"salt  of  the  earth, "  and  the  shining  examples  which  guide  the  world  to 
higher  things — noble  men  and  noble  women.  A  Sidney,  dying  on  the 
field  of  Zutphen,  hands  over  the  cup  of  water  to  a  wounded  soldier 
because  his  soul,  nourished  on  noble  thoughts,  and  his  fancy,  fed  by 
the  old  ballads  which,  like  that  of  "  Chevy  Chase, "  stirred  him  like  a 
trumpet-blast,  had  led  him  to  conceive  an  ideal  of  a  perfect  knight 
which  would  have  been  tarnished  by  any  shade  of  a  selfish  action. 
Gordon  sacrifices  his  life  at  Khartoum,  not  only  cheerfully  but  almost 
instinctively,  because  the  suggestion  that  he  might  save  himself 
by  abandoning  those  who  had  trusted  in  him  seems  an  absolute 
impossibility. 

It  is  a  great  advantage  of  the  present  day  that  education  and  the  press 
bring  such  instances  of  devoted  heroism  vividly  before  millions  who 
would  never  otherwise  have  heard  of  them.  The  influence  of  the  press, 
both  in  the  way  of  books  and  newspapers,  is  happily  in  this  country 
almost  entirely  one  which  makes  for  good.  There  is  not  a  noble  act 
done  throughout  the  world,  by  high  or  low,  by  private  or  officer,  by 
soldier  or  civilian,  which  is  not  held  up  for  praise  and  admiration ; 
while  any  signal  instance  of  cowardice  or  selfishness  is  held  up  to  con- 
tempt Newspaper  correspondence  and  leading  articles  have,  to  a 
great  extent,  superseded  sermons,  and  do  the  practical  moral  work 
of  the  world  in  asserting  the  right  and  rebuking  wickedness  in  high 
places.  In  like  manner  all  the  higher  works  of  poetry,  fiction,  and 
biography  have  a  good  tendency,  and  are  read  by  an  ever-increasing 
number  of  readers.  Enid  and  Elaine,  Jeanie  Deans,  ](Jaura  Pendennis, 
Lucy  Roberts,  are  the  sort  of  models  set  before  girls ;  while  boys 
who  have  any  heroic  fibre  in  their  nature  are  fed  with  such  lives  as 
those  of  Lawrence  and  Gordon.  For  all,  but  especially  for  the  young, 
there  is  no  help  to  self-improvement  so  great  as  to  read  good  books 
in  a  generous  spirit ;  and  nothing  which  dwarfs  the  mind  so  much  as 
to  debauch  it  by  frivolous  reading,  and  by  the  moral  dram-drinking 
of  sensational  rubbish,  until  it  loses  all  natural  and  healthy  appetite 
for  the  pure  and  elevated.  An  affectation  of  narrow  knowingness  is 
also  a.  very  fatal  tendency  in  the  youthful  mind.  A  man  from  whose 
mouth  such  words  as  "rot"  and  "humbug"  are  constantly  heard  is, 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  a  very  poor,  rotten  creature  himself. 

Among  the  many  advantages  of  self-respect,  not  the  least  impor- 
tant is  that  it  teaches  respect  for  others.  The  petty  jealousies  and 
suspicions,  the  senseless  quarrels,  the  slanderings  aud  backbitings, 
which  so  often  turn  sour  the  wine  of  life,  disappear  of  themselves  when 
a  proper  standard  of  self-respect  has  been  firmly  established,  and  a 
high  ideal  of  human  life  has  become  part  of  our  nature.  As  Tennyson 
says: 

Like  simple  noble  natures  credulous 

Of  what  they  wish  for,  good  in  friend  or  foe ; 

while  on  the  other  hand 

The  long -necked  geese  of  the  world 
Are  always  hissing  dispraise,  because  their  natures  are  little. 

There  are  some  who  delight  in  running  down  everything  and 
everybody,  and  whose  appetite  for  scandal  is  so  great  that  they  are 


156       MODERN  SCIENCE  AXD   MODERN  THOUGHT. 

positively  unable  to  refrain  from  believing  raid  spreading  an  ill-natured 
tale,  if  it  affects  some  eminent  man,  and  still  more  if  it  affects  a,  well- 
known  woman.  Such  are  assuredly  not  the  sort  of  persons  whom  wo 
should  like  to  resemble  oui  selves,  or  to  see  our  sons  and  daughters 
resemble.  I  have  always  found  through  life,  a  safe  rule  to  go  by 
was,  if  you  hear  an  ill-natured  story  of  a  man,  discount  nine-tenths  of 
it  as  a  lie,  and  if  of  a  woman,  don't  believe  a  word  of  it. 

Perhaps  the  best  test  of  the  amount  of  real  "self-reverence"  in. 
an  individual  or  a  nation,  is  to  be  found  in  the  tone  and  manner  in  which 
women  are  treated.  A  low  tone  invariably  bespeaks  a  low  nature,  and 
testifies  to  innate  coarseness  and  snobbishness,  however  high  mr  :  be 
the  rank  and  polished  the  outward  varnish  of  the  person  who  indulges 
in  it.  On  the  other  hand  the  roughest  miner  or  backwoodsman  is 
already  more  than  half  a  gentleman,  if  his  attitude  towards  women  is 
one  of  chivalrous  courtesy.  Nothing  looks  more  hopeful  for  the  future 
of  the  human  race  than  to  see  that  the  female  half  of  it  are  constant 
gainers  by  the  progress  of  freedom  and  education.  It  goes  a  long 
way  to  reconcile  one  to  the  dangers  of  democracy,  to  find  that  in  the 
newest  and  most  democratic  countries  of  the  world,  such  as  the  "United 
States  and  British  colonies,  women  can  travel  alone  without  fear  of 
insult,  and  have  far  more  innocent  liberty  and  freedom  of  thought 
and  action  than  they  have  in  older  societies.  Whatever  may  be  the 
case  as  regards  men,  for  women  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  is 
a  progressive  scale  upwards  from  East  to  West,  from  despotism  to 
freedom,  from  Turkey  to  America. 

What  has  been  said  of  individuals  is  even  more  true  of  nations. 
Self-respect  is  the  very  essence  of  national  life.  A  great  nation  may 
suffer  great  disasters,  and  survive  them,  if  the  spirit  of  its  people 
remains  intact.  England  survived  the  war  of  American  independence, 
and  Prussia  recovered  from  the  defeat  of  Jena.  But  if  a  nation  loses 
its  vigor  and  self-respect,  if  it  begins  to  groan  under  the  burdens  of 
extended  empire,  an<  I  to  prefer  comfort  to  honor,  ignoble  ease  to  noble 
effort,  the  hour  of  its  decline  has  sounded.  Imperial  Kome  did  not 
long  survive  when  she  began  to  contract  her  frontiers  and  buy  off 
barbarians.  The  most  fatal  thing  any  Government  can  do  for  a  coun- 
try is  to  destroy  its  sense  of  self-respect  and  teach  it  to  acquiesce  in 
what  is  felt  to  be  dishonorable. 

Looking  forward  to  the  future  of  the  great  British  Empire,  this  is 
evidently  a  turning  point  of  its  destinies.  The  triumph  of  democracy  is 
an  inevitable  fact ;  for  knowledge  is  power,  and  whether  for  good  or 
evil,  the  masses  have  either  acquired,  or  are  fast  acquiring  knowledge, 
and  with  equal  political  rights  numbers  will  tell.  How  will  this 
democracy  of  the  future  affect  Imperial  interests,  and  what  will  be  its 
attitude  in  regard  to  foreign  and  colonial  policy? 

On  the  one  hand  it  maybe  hoped  that  by  making  our  institutions 
more  popular,  and  going  down  to  the  heart  of  the  masses,  our  policy 
will  acquire  fresh  energy  and  our  public  men  fresh  vigor.  The  working 
classes  are  very  patriotic,  and,  on  the  whole,  more  open  to  the  influ- 
ence of  generous  ideas  than  the  class  immediately  above  them.  In  the 
recent  instance  of  the  great  civil  war  in  the  United  States,  we  have 
seen  a  democracy  making  greater  sacrifices  of  men  and  money  for  the 
idea  of  maintaining  national  greatness,  the. n  was  probably  ever  volunta- 
rily made  by  any  monarchical  or  aristocratic  country.  The  Copper- 
heads, who  preached  peace  where  there  was  no  peace,  and  advised 


PRACTICAL   LIFE.  157 

letting  the  erring  sisters  go  their  way  rather  than  spend  lives  and 
money  in  the  attempt  to  coerce  them,  found  no  response  from  a  nation 
who  felt  that  the  union  was  their  union,  and  its  greatness  the  separate 
personal  possession  of  each  individual  citizen. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  demagogues  will  never  be  wanting  to 
flatter  the  people,  and  angle  for  power  by  appealing  to  their  lower 
instincts  and  advocating  measures  of  present  ease  and  popularity.  If 
a  necessity  arises  for  maintaining  by  the  sword  an  empire  which  has 
been  won  by  the  sword,  the  army  of  parochial  politicians  who  gauge 
everything  by  the  standard  of  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence,  will  be 
reinforced  by  the  far  more  respectable  body  of  sentimentalists  and 
humanitarians,  who  shrink  from  the  shedding  of  blood  in  wars  the 
abstract  justice  of  which  is  not  absolutely  demonstrated.  A  large 
number,  perhaps  a  majority,  of  platform  orators  will  therefore  be 
found  now,  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  Demosthenes,  to  denounce  arma- 
ments, ridicule  precautions,  minimize  responsibilities,  and  look  upon 
India,  the  Colonies,  and  extended  empire  generally,  as  troublesome 
encumbrances  rather  than  as  glorious  possessions.  The  two  conflict- 
ing ideals  constantly  set  before  our  future  political  rulers,  the  four 
millions  whose  votes  decide  the  fate  of  policies  and  of  ministries,  will 
be,  on  the  one  hand,  that  our  first  duty. is  to  hand  down  the  British 
Empire  to  our  sons  no  less  great  and  glorious  than  we  received  it  from 
our  fathers ;  on  the  other,  that  it  is  better  to  stay  at  home,  mind  our 
own  affairs,  avoid  entanglements,  contract  responsibilities,  pass  reform 
bills,  and  reduce  taxes,  trusting  to  the  "  silver  streak  "  and  the  chapter 
of  accidents  to  protect  us  from  invasion.  It  is  the  old  story  of  the 
fable  of  Hercules,  which  presents  itself  constantly  to  each  individual 
and  to  every  nation.  Shall  we  follow  the  strait  and  narrow  path  which 
leads  upwards,  or  the  broad  and  easy  one  which  leads,  with  a  pleasant 
slope  to  a  lower  level  ?  Would  it  have  been  better  for  Paris  to  give  the 
golden  apple  to  Minerva,  counselling  "self-reverence,  self-knowledge, 
self-control,"  or  to  Venus,  promising  pleasure? 

SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 

Oh  wad  some  Power  the  giftie  gie  us 
To  see  ourselves  as  ithers  see  us  ! 

BUKNO. 

A  gift  which  is  unfortunately  as  rare  as  it  is  necessary.  Without 
self-knowledge  to  see  our  faults  how  shall  we  correct  them  ?  How 
shall  we  become  wise  if  insensible  to  our  follies?  How  shall  we 
achieve  success  if  we  learn  no  lessons  from  our  failures  I  There  are 
some  men  so  blinded  by  vanity  that  they  go  through  life  committing 
ungentlemanly  actions  while  fancying  themselves  perfect  gentlemen ; 
who  are  convinced  that  all  men  admire  them  and  all  women  are  in  love 
with  them,  while  in  reality  every  one  sees  through  them  and  laughs  at 
them.  A  thoroughly  impervious  vanity  is  like  a  waterproof,  which 
throws  off  the  wholesome  rain  on  the  outside,  while  on  the  inside  it  is 
soaked  with  unhealthy  exhalations. 

Fortunately  this  type  of  vanity  is  not  a  common  one  with  our 
English  race,  who  are  too  proud  and  self-reliant  to  feel  the  petty 
anxiety  of  the  really  vain  man  to  be  always  shining  in  the  eyes  of 
others.  With  us  it  takes  more  the  form  of  priding  ourselves  on  arti- 


158       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

ficial  distinctions,  and  attaching  an  exaggerated  importance  to  matters 
of  trivial  importance.  Your  commonplace  English  swell,  for  instance, 
is  apt  to  class  all  mankind  under  two  categories — those  who  associate 
with  lords  and  wear  clothes  of  a  fashionable  cut,  and  those  who  do- 
not,  and  to  set  down  all  the  former  as  the  "  right  sort,"  and  all  the 
latter  as  "brutes." 

It  is  a  sign  of  narrowness  to  make  a  fetich  of  these  or  any  other 
arbitrary  distinctions  between  an  upper  ten  and  the  rest  of  mankind, 
and  self-knowledge  is  never  more  required  than  to  show  the  hollowness 
of  adventitious  advantages  which  are  not  supported  by  intrinsic  merit. 
A  true  gentleman  feels 

The  rank  is  but  the  guinea  stamp, 
The  man's  the  gowd  for  a'  that, 

and  feeling  this,  he  holds  out  the  hand  of  hearty  human  sympathy  to 
peasant  as  well  as  to  peer.  If  born  to  rank  and  riches,  self-knowledge 
tells  him  that  he  is  simply  placed  on  a  pedestal,  where,  if  he  fails  to  act 
on  the  maxim  that  "noblesse  oblige,"  the  failure  will  be  the  more 
conspicuous.  No  man  who  really  knows  himself  can  ever  be  conceited, 
for  he  must  be  aware  how  far  he  has  fallen  short  in  practice  of  his  own 
ideal  standard,  and  how  .constantly  "  he  has  done  things  he  ought  not 
to  have  done,  and  left  undone  things  he  ouglit  to  have  done." 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  an  opposite  extreme  from  which  self- 
knowledge  will  save  a  man  :  that  of  undue  despondency  and  want  of 
proper  confidence  and  self-reliance.  There  are  men  who  fail  in  every- 
thing they  undertake  because  they  have  not  the  heart  to  undertake  it 
resolutely,  and  who  at  last  sink  down  into  the  hopeless  condition  of 
querulous  mental  invalids,  who  cherish  their  ailments  rather  than 
combat  them,  and  are  rather  proud  than  otherwise  to  be  considered  as 
interesting  victims  of  untoward  circumstances. 

For  all  the  relations  of  practical  life  the  one  essential  requisite  of 
success  is  to  see  things  as  they  really  are,  and  not  as  we  wish  them  to 
be;  and  for  this  purpose  self-knowledge  is  the  foundation  of  clear 
insight.  If  the  focus  of  the  glass  is  wrongly  adjusted  it  will  show  only 
distorted  images,  but  if  a  clear  eye  looks  through  a  properly  focussed 
glass,  outward  objects  will  be  truly  represented. 

Perhaps  the  commonest  of  all  delusions  is  that  of  being  born 
under  a  lucky  star.  A  man  gambles,  bets,  or  speculates  because  he 
thinks  he  is  lucky  and  sure  to  win.  Now,  there  is  in  reality  no  such 
thing  as  luck,  it  is  all  a  question  of  averages.  The  only  approach  to 
what  may  be  called  luck  is,  that  a  fool  will  probably  have  more  of  it 
than  a  wise  man,  for  as  the  fool  foresees  nothing,  whenever  fortune's 
die  turns  up  in  his  favor  he  sets  it  down  to  luck,  while  the  wise  man, 
who  has  schemed  and  worked  for  the  event,  calls  it  foresight.  But 
the  actual  average  of  events,  which  depend  entirely  on  chance,  will  be 
the  same. 

If  a  man  plays  at  rouge  et  noir  with  one  chance  in  a  hundred  in 
favor  of  the  bank,  it  is  certain  that  if  he  plays  often  enough,  he  will 
lose  his  capital  once  at  least  for  every  hundred  times  he  plays.  Or, 
if  he  speculates  on  the  Stock  Exchange,  the  turn  of  the  market  and 
broker's  commission  will,  in  the  long  run,  certainly  swallow  up  his 
original  capital.  And  yet  men  will  gamble  and  speculate,  because 
they  cannot  resist  the  pleasing  illusion  that  they  are  lucky,  and  that 
it  would  be  very  nice  to  win  a  large  stake  without  having  had  to  work 
for  it. 


PRACTICAL   LIFE.  .      159 

There  is  nothing  for  which  self-knowledge  is  more  indispensable 
in  practical  life  than  to  enable  a  man  to  steer  a  straight  course  between 
opposite  extremes,  and  to  discern  clearly  the  boundary  line  between 
Bright  and  wrong.  The  law  of  polarity,  by  which  things  good  in 
themselves  if  pushed  to  extremes  become  bad,  and  every  truth 
develops  a  corresponding  error,  is  of  daily  and  universal  application 
in  practical  affairs. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  much-debated  question  of  the  pursuit  of 
money.  Poets  and  novelists  are  never  tired  of  denouncing  the  "  Auri 
sacra  fames,"  and  there  is  no  doubt  that,  when  carried  to  excess,  it  is 
the  fertile  source  of  crime;  and  even  in  a  less  degree,  it  leads  to 
meanness  and  dishonesty,  and  has  a  degrading  influence  on  the 
individual  or  the  nation  who  give  themselves  up  too  exclusively  to 
the  worship  of  the  "almighty  dollar."  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
desire,  or  rather  the  necessity  under  the  conditions  of  civilized  society, 
of  making  money,  is  by  far  the  most  powerful  and  all-pervading 
influence  of  practical  life.  And,  within  due  bounds  and  under  proper 
conditions,  it  is  a  healthy  and  beneficial  influence.  At  the  lowest 
stage  it  obliges  men  to  work  instead  of  being  idle,  and  this  is  an 
immense  advantage  both  to  the  community  and  to  the  individual.  An 
idle  man,  in  every  grade  of  society,  is  generally  a  worthless  and  often 
a  bad  man ;  while  an  honest  working  man,  whether  the  work  be  of  the 
head  or  hand,  is  far  more  likely  to  be  happy  and  respectable. 

Again,  the  necessity  of  earning  money  is  a  wonderful  test  of  the 
real  value  of  a  man  in  the  world's  market.  We  should  be  all  very  apt 
to  become  pretentious  wind-bags  of  conceit,  if  we  were  not  brought 
to  our  senses  by  the  wholesome  douche  of  having  to  work  for  a  live- 
lihood. Many  a  man  who  fancies  himself  intended  for  a  poet  or 
politician,  and  some  who  by  accident  of  birth  or  fortune  are  pitch- 
forked into  prominent  positions,  would  find  it  difficult  to  point  out 
any  occupation  in  which  they  are  honestly  worth  a  couple  of  hundred 
a  year. 

Even  in  the  higher  departments  of  art  and  literature,  it  may  be 
questioned  whether  the  healthy,  natural  desire  to  turn  an  honest  penny 
has  not  inspired  greater  works  than  a  morbid  appetite  for  fame. 
Shakespeare's  ambition  was  to  retire  to  his  native  town  with  a  moderate 
competency ;  Walter  Scott's  to  become  a  laird,  with  a  family  estate,  in 
the  border-land  of  the  chief  of  his  clan — "the  bold  Buccleugh."  And, 
in  the  present  day,  literature  is  becoming  more  and  more  an  honorable 
profession,  which  men  take  to,  as  they  do  to  law  or  medicine,  as  a 
means  of  earning  a  livelihood. 

It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  under  the  practical  condi- 
tions of  modern  civilization,  money  means  not  only  the  possibility  of 
bare  existence,  but  nearly  all  that  makes  existence  tolerable — health, 
recreation,  culture,  and  independence.  The  number  and  locality  of  the 
rooms  a  man  lives  in,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  and  purity  of  the  air  he 
and  his  family  breathe,  are  questions  of  rent;  the  food  they  eat,  the 
clothes  they  wear,  the  books  they  read,  the  holidays  they  enjoy,  are  all 
questions  of  money.  And  above  all,  without  money  there  is  no  inde- 
pendence. An  absolutely  penniless  man  has  to  fall  back  on  crime  or 
the  workhouse;  a  poor  man  is  at  the  mercy  of  a  thousand  accidents; 
sickness,  fluctuations  of  trade,  caprice  of  employers,  pressure  of  credi- 
tors, may  at  any  moment  reduce  him  and  those  who  depend  on  him  to 
want.  It  admits  of  no  question,  that  the  first  duty  of  every  one  is  to 


160       MODERX  SCIENCE  AXD  MODERX  THOUGHT. 

endeavor  to  raise  himself  above  this  level  of  ignoble  daily  cares,  and 
plant  himself  in  a  position  where  he  can  face  the  present  and  look  for- 
ward to  the  future  with  tolerable  equanimity.  As  we  rise  in  the  scale 
of  society  the  problem  becomes  more  difficult.  Money-making-  is  very 
apt  to  be  pushed  to  excess  and  lead  to  gambling  and  dishonesty ;  while 
the  worship  of  wealth,  which  is  perhaps  the  besetting  sin  of  the  age,  is 
distinctly  the  cause  of  much  lax  morality  and  snobbish  vulgarity.  But 
on  the  other  hand,  money  is  power,  and  a  large  fortune  honestly 
acquired  and  well  spent,  gives  its  possessor  unrivalled  opportunities 
for  doing  good.  He  can  assist  charities,  patronize  art,  and  if  gifted 
•with  force  of  character  and  fair  abilities  may  become  a  legislator  and 
statesman,  and  enrol  his  name  in  the  annals  of  his  country.  It  is 
hard  to  say  that  if  a  man  has  an  opportunity  of  making  a  large  fortune 
honestly,  and  feels  that  he  has  it  in  him  to  use  it  nobly,  he  should 
refrain  from  doing  so  because  moralists  cry  "Sour  grapes,"  and  tell 
him  that  riches  are  deceitful. 

But  for  nothing  is  '"self-knowledge"  more  requisite  than  to  enable 
a  man  to  see  clearly  how  high  he  can  safely  aim,  and  what  sort  of 
stake  he  can  prudently  play  for.  The  immense  majority  of  mankind 
have  neither  the  opportunities  nor  the  faculties  for  playing  for  very 
high  stakes,  and  must  be  contented  with  the  safe  game  for  moderate 
and  attainable  ends.  One  such  end  is  within  the  reach  of  almost 
every  one : 

To  make  a  happy  household  clime 

For  weaus  and  wife, 
/  Is  the  true  pathos  and  sublime 

Of  human  life. 

So  says  Burns,  who  has  a  rare  faculty  of  hitting  the  right  nail  on 
the  head;  and  the  ideal  he  sets  before  us  in  these  simple  lines  is  at 
once  the  truest  and  the  most  universal.  The  man  who  fails  in  this  is 
himself  a  failure ;  while  the  man  who  by  his  industry  and  energy  sup- 
ports a  family  in  comfort  and  respectability  according  to  their  station, 
and  who,  at  the  same  time,  by  control  of  temper,  kindness,  unselfish- 
ness, and  swaet  reasonableness  makes  his  household  a  happy  one,  may 
feel,  even  though  fortune  may  not  have  placed  him  in  a  position  of 
higher  responsibilities,  that  he  has  not  lived  in  vain,  that  he  has  per- 
formed the  first  duties  and  tasted  the  truest  pleasures  of  mortal 
existence,  and  that,  whatever  there  may  be  behind  the  impenetrable 
veil,  he  can  face  it  with  head  erect,  as  one  of  "Nature's  gentlemen." 

SELF-CONTROL. 

This  is,  after  all,  the  vitally  important  element  of  a  happy  and  suc- 
cessful life.  The  compass  may  point  truly  to  the  pole,  the  chart  may 
show  tjie  right  channel  amidst  shoals  and  rocks,  but  the  ship  will 
hardly  arrive  safely  in  port  unless  the  helmsman  stands  at  his  post  in 
all  weathers,  ready  to  meet  any  sheer  of  the  bow  by  a  timely  turn  to 
starboard  or  to  port.  So  self -reverence  and  self-knowledge  may  point 
out  ever  so  clearly  the  path  of  duty,  unless  self-control  is  constantly 
present  we  shall  surely  stray  from  it.  At  every  moment  of  our  lives 
natural  instinct  tells  us  to  do  one  thing,  while  reason  and  conscience  tell 
us  to  do  another.  It  is  by  an  effort  that  we  get  up  in  the  morning 
and  go  about  our  daily  work.  It  is  by  an  effort  that  we  refrain  from 
indulgences  and  forego  pleasures,  control  our  passions,  restrain  our 


PRACTICAL  LIFE:  IGI 

-tempers.  The  uncultured  man  is  violent,  selfish,  childish ;  it  is  only 
by  the  inherited  or  acquired  practice  of  self-control  that  he  is  trans- 
formed into  the  civilized  man — courteous,  considerate,  sensible,  and 
reliable. 

The  necessity  of  self-control  in  all  the  more  important  relations 
of  moral  and  practical  life  is  so  obvious  that  it  would  be  only  repeat- 
ing commonplaces  to  enlarge  on  it.  But  there  is  often  danger  of  its 
being  overlooked  in  those  minor  morals  of  conduct  which  make  up  the 
greater  part  of  life,  and  determine  the  happiness  or  misery  of  oneself 
and  others. 

For  instance,  control  over  the  temper.  A  man  never  shows  his 
cousinship  to  the  ape  so  much  as  when  he  is  in  a  passion.  The  mani- 
festations are  so  exactly  similar — irrational  violence,  nervous  agitation, 
total  loss  of  head,  and  abdication  of  all  presence  of  mind  and  reason- 
ing power.  To  see  a  grown-up  man  reduced  to  the  level  of  a  spoiled 
child,  or  of  a  monkey  who  has  been  disappointed  of  a  nut,  is  a  spectacle 
of  which  it  is  hard  to  say  whether  it  is  more  ridiculous  or  painful. 
Even  worse  than  occasional  violence  is  the  habitual  ill- temper  which 
makes  life  miserable  to  those  who  are  obliged  to  put  up  with  it.  We 
call  a  man  who  strikes  a  woman  or  child  with  his  fist  a  brute ;  what 
is  he  if  he  strikes  them  daily  and  hourly,  ten  times  more  cruelly,  with 
his  tongue?  A  ten  times  greater  brute.  And  yet  there  are  men,  call- 
ing themselves  gentlemen,  who  do  this,  either  from  sheer  brutality  of 
nature,  or  oftener  from  inconsiderateness,  coarseness  of  fibre,  and 
inability  to  exercise  self-control  in  minor  matters. 

There  is  one  very  common  mistake  made,  that  of  considering 
relationship  an  excuse  for  rudeness.  The  members  of  a  family  may 
relax  something  of  the  stiffness  of  company  manners  among  them- 
selves, but  they  should  ne\er  forget  that  it  is  just  as  much  ill-breeding 
to  say  a  rude  thing  to  a  wife,  a  sister,  or  a  brother,  as  it  would  be  to 
say  it  to  any  other  lady  or  gentleman.  In  fact,  it  is  worse,  for  the 
other  lady  can  treat  you  with  contempt  and  keep  out  of  your  way, 
while  the  poor  woman  who  is  tied  to  you  feels  it  keenly,  and  has  no 
means  of  escape  from  it.  Good  manners  are,  in  practical  life,  a  great 
part  of  good  morals ;  and  there  is  something  to  be  said  for  religions 
which,  like  the  Chinese,  lay  down  rules  of  politeness,  and  make  salva- 
tion depend  very  much  on  the  observance  of  rites  and  ceremonies 
intended  to  ensure  courtesy  and  decorum  in  the  intercourse  of  all 
classes  of  the  community  in  daily  life. 

Although  not  so  bad  as  the  indulgence  of  a  violent  or  morose 
temper,  a  great  deal  of  unhappiness  is  caused  by  a  fussy  and  fidgety 
disposition,  which  makes  mountains  out  of  molehills,  and  keeps  every 
one  in  hot  water  about  trifles.  This  is  one  of  the  common  faults  of 
idleness,  as  genuine  work  both  strengthens  the  fibre  to  resist  and 
leaves  no  time  to  brood  over  petty  troubles. 

The  excuse  one  commonly  hears  from  those  who  give  way  to 
these  petty  infirmities  is,  "that  they  cannot  help  it,  they  are  born  with 
thin  skins  and  excitable  tempers."  This  is  the  excuse  of  sloth  and 
weakness.  If,  as  the  poet  says, 

Man  is  man,  and  master  of  his  fate, 

what  sort  of  an  unmanly  creature  must  he  be  who  cannot  master  even 
the  slightest  impulse  or  resist  the  slightest  temptation,  and  allows 
himself  to  be  ruined  into  a  storm  by  every  passing  breath,  like  a  shallow 


162       MODERX  SCIEXCE  AXD   MODERX  THOUGHT. 

roadside  puddle  ?  If  he  will  not  try  lie  certaii.Iy  will  not  learn;  but  if 
he  will  honestly  try  to  correct  faults,  he  will  find  it  easier  every  time, 
until  the  fancied  impossibilities  fade  away  and  are  forgotten.  A  man 
who  is  so  much  afraid  of  tumbling  off  that  he  will  never  mount  a 
horse,  may  fancy  that  Nature  has  disqualified  him  for  riding ;  but  for 
all  that,  nine  men  out  of  ten,  if  obliged  to  try — say  as  recruits  in 
a  cavalry  regiment — though  they  may  not  all  turn  out  accomplished 
horsemen,  will  all  learn  to  ride  well  enough  for  practical  purposes. 

It  is  peculiarly  important  for  the  young  to  set  resolutely  about 
correcting  bad  habits  and  forming  good  ones,  while  the  faculties  are 
fresh  and  the  brain  supple ;  for,  in  obedience  to  the  law  by  which  molec- 
ular motions  travel  by  preference  along  beaten  paths,  every  year  cuts 
deeper  the  channels  of  thought  and  feeliug,  whether  for  good  or  evil. 
A  brain  trained  to  respond  to  calls  of  duty  soon  does  so  with  ease  and 
elasticity,  just  as  the  muscles  of  the  blacksmith's  arm  or  of  the  ballet- 
dancer's  leg  acquire  strength  and  vigor  by  exercise ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  motion  is  a  pain  and  self-control  an  effort  to  the  soft  and 
flabby  limb  or  brain  which  has  been  weakened  by  self-indulgence. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  for  success  in  practical  life, 
self-control  is  the  one  thing  most  needful,  To  take  the  simplest  case, 
that  of  a  young  workingman  beginning  life  with  health,  knowledge 
of  a  trade,  or  even  without  it  with  good  thews  and  sinews,  he  is  the 
most  free  and  independent  of  mortals,  on  one  condition — that  he  has 
saved  £10.  With  this,  he  is  a  free  agent  in  disposing  of  his  labor,  he 
can  make  his  contract  with  an  employer  on  equal  terms,  he  can  carry 
his  goods  to  the  best  market,  and  is  practically  a  citizen  of  the  world, 
ready  to  start  for  San  Francisco  or  Melbourne  if  he  thinks  he  can 
better  himself.  Without  it,  he  is  a  serf  tied  to  the  soil,  he  cannot 
move  from  place  to  place,  he  must  take  whatever  wages  are  offered  him 
or  starve. 

But  how  to  save  the  £10?  That  is  a  question  of  daily  and  weekly 
recurrence ;  whether  to  spend  an  extra  shilling  in  the  pleasant  way  of 
going  to  a  public-house  and  sitting  with  a  pipe  and  a  jug  of  ale  by  the 
fireside  among  jolly  companions,  or  to  forego  the  pleasure  and  save  the 
shilling.  A  shilling  a  week  saved  will,  in  four  years,  give  him  the  £10, 
and  go  a  good  way  to  establish  habits  which,  if  he  is  enterprising  and 
goes  to  a  colony,  or  clever  and  has  any  luck  at  home,  may  readily  make 
the  ten  a  hundred,  or  even  a  thousand  pounds.  So  in  every  class  of 
life,  the  man  who  gets  on  is  the  man  who  has  schooled  himself  never  to 
ask  whether  a  thing  is  pleasant,  but  whether  it  is  right  and  reasonable; 
and  who  always  keeps  a  bright  look-out  ahead,  and  does  his  best  at  the 
task,  whatever  it  may  be,  that  is  set  before  him. 

Education  really  resolves  itself  very  much  into  teaching  the  young" 
to  acquire  this  indispensable  faculty  of  self-control.  The  amount  of 
positive  knowledge,  useful  in  after  life,  acquired  at  our  English  public 
schools,  is  really  very  little  beyond  the  three  R's.  A  boy  who  could 
teach  himself  French  or  German  in  five  months  spends  five  years  over 
Latin  and  Greek,  and  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  forgets  them  as  soon  as 
he  leaves  school  or  college.  Almost  everything  we  know  that  is  worth 
knowing  we  teach  ourselves  in  after  life.  But  the  discipline  of  school 
is  invaluable  in  teaching  the  lesson  of  self-control.  Almost  every  hour 
of  the  day  a  boy  at  school  has  to  do  things  that  are  disagreeable  and 
abstain  from  doing  things  that  nature  prompts,  under  pain  of  getting" 
a  caning  from  the  master  or  a  thrashing  from  other  boys.  The 


PRACTICAL   LIFE.  163 

memory  also  is  exercised,  and  the  faculty  of  fixing  the  mind  on  won; 
is  developed,  by  useless  almost  as  well  as  by  useful  studies,  In  this 
point  of  view  even  that  ne  plus  ultra  of  technical  pedantry,  the  Latin 
grammar,  with  its  "Propria  quse  maribus  "  and  "As  in  present!,"  may 
have  its  use  in  teaching  a  boy  that  no  matter  how  absurd  or  repulsive 
a  task  may  be,  he  has  got  to  tackle  to  it  or  worse  will  befall  him. 

But  it  is  in  a  mpral  sense  that  the  influence  of  a  good  school  is 
most  valuable.  The  average  boy  learns  that  he  must  not  tell  lies,  he 
must  not  be  a  sneak  or  a  coward,  he  must  take  punishment  bravdy. 
and  conform  to  the  schoolmaster's  standard  of  discipline  and  the 
school-boy's  standard  of  honor.  In  this  way  the  first  lesson  of 
life,  stoicism,  becomes  with  most  English  lads  a  sort  of  instinct  or 
second  nature. 

For  stoicism,  after  all,  is  the  foundation  and  primary  element  of 
all  useful  and  honorable  life.  Whether  as  Carlyle's  "Everlasting  No,*' 
or  as  George  Eliot's  advice  to  take  the  pains  and  mishaps  of  life  with- 
out resorting  to  moral  opium,  the  conclusion  of  all  the  greatest  minds 
is  that  a  man  must  have  something  of  the  Red  Indian  in  him  and  be 
able  to  suffer  silently,  and  burn  his  own  smoke,  if  he  is  to  be  worth  any- 
thing. And  still  more  a  woman,  who  has  to  bear  with  and  make  the 
best  of  a  thousand  petty  annoyances  without  complaint.  Men  can 
bear  on  great  occasions,  but  in  the  innumerable  petty  trials  of  life 
women  as  a  rule  show  mo.re  self-control  and  moral  fortitude.  What 
would  the  life  of  a  women  be  who  could  not  stand  being  bored  with  a 
smiling  face,  put  up  with  the  worries  of  children  and  servants  with 
cheerful  fortitude,  and  turn  away  an  angry  word  by  a  soft  answer? 

There  is  much  more  that  might  be  said,  but  my  object  is  not  to 
preach  or  moralize,  but  simply  to  record  a  few  of  the  practical  rules 
and  reflections  which  have  impressed  themselves  on  me  in  the  course  of 
a  long  and  busy  life.  I  do  so  in  the  hope  that  perchance  they  may 
awaken  useful  thoughts  in  some,  especially  of  the  younger  readers,  who 
may  happen  to  glance  over  these  pages.  This  mu^hlmay  say  for 
them,  I  have  tried  them  and  found  them  work  well.  I  have  lived  for 
more  than  the  Scriptural  span  of  threescore  and  ten  years,  a  life  of 
varied  fortunes  and  many  experiences.  I  may  say,  in  the  words  which 
my  favorite  poet,  Tennyson,  puts  into  the  mouth  of  Ulysses: 

For  ever  roaming  with  a  hungry  heart, 
Much  have  I  seen  and  known,  cities  of  men, 
And  councils,  climates,  governments. 

And  the  conclusion  I  come  to  is,  not  that  of  the  Preacher,  "Vanity  of 
vanities,  all  is  vanity,"  but  rather  that  life,  with  all  its  drawbacks,  is 
worth  living ;  and  that  to  have  been  born  in  a  civilized  country  in  the 
nineteenth  century  is  a  boon  for  which  a  man  can  never  be  sufficiently 
thankful.  Some  may  find  it  otherwise  from  no  fault  of  their  own ; 
more  by  their  own  fault ;  but  the  majority  of  men  and  women  may 
lead  useful,  honorable,  and  on  the  whole  fairly  happy  lives,  if  they  will 
act  on  the  maxim  which  I  have  always  endeavored,  however  imper- 
fectly, to  follow — 

FEAR  NOTHING  I    MAKE  THE  BEST  OF  EVERYTHING. 


164       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 
SUPPLEMENTAL  CHAPTER. 

Gladstone's  "Dawn  of  Creation  "  and  "  Proem  to  Genesis." 
Drummond's  "Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World." 

SINCE  the  above  work  was  written,  two  essays  have  appeared  which 
require  notice ;  one,  from  the  celebrity  of  its  author,  the  other 
from  its  extensive  circulation.  I  refer  to  Mr.  Gladstone's  articles  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century,  on  the  "Dawn  of  Creation  and  of  Worship," 
and  on  the  "Proem  to  Genesis ; "  and  to  Professor  Drummond's 
"Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World." 

The  first  essay  attempts  to  prove  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible 
from  the  anticipations  of  the  conclusions  of  modern  science  alleged  to 
be  contained  in  the  Book  of  Genesis.  The  second,  that  of  Professor 
Drummond,  assuming  this  inspiration  and  the  Calvinistic  creed  of 
theology  based  upon  it,  professes  to  show  that  the  latter  is  the 
inevitable  result  of  the  same  identical  natural  laws  as  prevail  through- 
out the  domain  of  Science. 

I  propose  to  deal  first  with  Mr.  Gladstone  as  a  theologian. 

u  THE  DAWN  OF  CKEATION  AND  OF  WORSHIP." 

Mr.  Gladstone's  article  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  on  the  "  Dawn 
of  Creation  and  of  Worship "  is  exactly  what  might  have  been 
expected  from  him — eloquent,  rhetorical,  diffuse ;  anything,  in  short, 
except  logical  and  closely-reasoned.  His  mental  attitude  towards 
these  questions  may  be  described  in  two  words,  as  that  of  a  man  who 
is  ecclesiastically-minded  and  Homerically-minded. 

In  fact,  about  one-third  of  his  essay  is  taken  up  by  a  digression, 
which  is  almost  entirely  irrelevant,  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the 
Olympian  gods,  as  described  by  Homer,  do  or  do  not  bear  traces  of 
being  personifications  of  natural  powers,  and  do  or  do  not  possess 
attributes  which  point  to  derivation  from  sources  common  to  the 
author  of  the  "  Iliad "  and  the  author  of  Genesis.  It  is  needless  to 
point  out  what  a  very  remote  bearing  this  speculation  can  have  on 
the  serious  and  vitally-important  question,  whether  the  account  of 
the  creation  of  the  world  and  of  man  contained  in  the  Bible  is  or  is 
not  consistent  with  the  ascertained  facts  of  modern  science.  That  the 
Homeric  gods  are  to  a  certain  extent  derived  from  solar  myths  is 
beyond  doubt.  Phoebus,  the  shining  one,  whose  arrow-rays,  darted 
in  wrath,  bring  pestilence,  is  clearly  in  some  senses  the  sun ;  and  it 
admits  of  no  question  that  the  labors  of  Hercules  are  principally,  if 
not  wholly,  taken  from  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac.  But  there  are  other 
elements  mixed  up  with  these,  and  if  it  should  be  proved  that  some 
of  them  are  borrowed  from  ancient  mythologies  common  to  the  Aryan 
and  Semitic  races,  which  is  far  from  being  an  ascertained  fact,  it  would 
go  a  very  little  way  towards  settling  the  question  whether  the  narrative 
of  Noah's  ark  is  a  true  narrative. 

The  digression  is  chiefly  interesting  as  illustrating  the  working 
of  Mr.  Gladstone's  mind,  which  is  eminently  excursive,  prone  to 
elaborate  details  and  to  dwell  on  irrelevant  issues  to  an  extent  which 
obscures  the  main  argument.  It  is  also  a  mind  eminently  sentimental 
and  emotional,  and  he  seems  to  think  that  questions  of  pure  scientific 
fact  can  be  decided  by  impassioned  appeals  to  the  feelings  connected 
with  old  forms  of  faith.  In  such  appeals  it  is  needless  to  say  that 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  1G5 

Mr.  Gladstone  is  at  home,  and  that  those  who  are  already  convinced 
will  find  in  this,  as  in  his  other  writings,  strains  of  lofty,  if  somewhat 
vague  and  verbose,  eloquence  to  read  and  to  admire.  Nor  can  it  be 
denied  that  any  candid  reader,  whether  convinced  or  not,  must  feel 
his  admiration  increased  for  a  man  who,  amidst  the  exciting  occupa- 
tions of  political  life,  can  keep  his  mind  open  to  such '  subjects  and 
snatch  a  leisure  hour  to  write  upon  them. 

But  when  we  pass  from  these  side  issues  to  the  central  question, 
we  cannot  allow  our  admiration  for  Mr.  Gladstone  to  give  more  weight 
to  his  assertions  and  arguments  than  if  they  proceeded  from  some 
unknown  Mr.  Smith  or  Mr.  Jones.  The  issue  is  quite  definite  and 
precise.  Is  or  is  not  the  account  of  the  creation  contained  in  the 
Old  Testament  true, — that  is,  consistent  with  real  facts  which  no  one 
can  dispute?  Mr.  Gladstone  undertakes  to  prove  that  it  is  true,  and 
that  its  accordance  with  facts,  as  ascertained  by  modern  science, 
goes  a  long  way  to  prove  the  inspiration  of  the  volume  in  which  it  is 
contained. 

To  sustain  this  weighty  proposition  it  is  obvious  that  the  first 
requisite  is  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  most  recent  dis- 
coveries in  astronomy,  geology,  zoology,  physiology,  and,  in  fact,  with 
all  branches  of  modern  science.  The  time  is  long  past  when  the  facts 
had  to  be  tested  by  their  correspondence  with  the  theory  of  an  inspired 
revelation ;  nowadays  it  is  the  theory  which  has  to  be  tested  by  its 
correspondence  with  the  facts.  Mr.  Gladstone  enters  upon  this  ardu- 
ous contest  with  the  gallantry  and  confidence  of  an  Arab  who  takes 
the  field  armed  with  sword  and  spear,  to  oppose,  for  the  first  time,  an 
adversary  armed  with  rifle  and  revolver.  He  says  himself  that  he  is 
"wholly  destitute  of  that  kind  of  knowledge  which  carries  authority, 1> 
and  the  most  cursory  perusal  of  his  essay  is  sufficient  to  show  it.  For 
instance,  he  states  that  the  fourfold  division  of  animated  creation  sefc 
forth  in  Genesis,  viz. : 

1.  The  water  population  ; 

2.  The  air  population ; 

3.  The  land  population  of  animals ; 

4.  The  land  population  consummated  in  man — 

"is  understood  to  have  been  so  approved  in  our  time  by  natural 
science,  that  it  may  be  taken  as  a  demonstrated  conclusion  and  estab- 
lished fact."  Is  it  possible  that  Mr.  Gladstone  never  heard  of  the 
iguanodon  of  the  Wealden,  or  of  the  small  insectivorous  and  marsupial 
animals  of  the  Oolite,  or  of  the  labyrinthodon  and  large  batrachians  of 
the  Trias,  or  of  the  scorpion  of  the  Silurian,  all  of  which  lived  on 
land  many  millions  of  years  before  a  single  species  of  any  fish  now 
inhabiting  the  waters,  or  ot  any  birds  now  inhabiting  the  air,  had  come 
into  existence  ?  Can  he  ever  have  visited  the  South  Kensington  Muse- 
um, and  seen  the  fossil  from  CEningen,  of  the  feathered  creature,  half 
bird,  half  reptile?  And  is  he  ignorant  of  the  great  mass  of  evidence 
tending  to  show  how  the  existing  forms  of  bird  life  were  developed 
from  reptilian  life,  at  a  period  enormously  remote,  but  still  long  subse- 
quent to  the  existence  of  many  species  of  that  "land  population"  which 
he  complacently  assumes  that  modern  science  has  proved  to  have  had 
no  existence  prior  to  the  creation  of  the  population  of  air  and  water? 
If  Mr.  Gladstone  will  go  to  the  British  Museum,  he  will  see  there  a 
slab  of  sandstone  from  one  of  the  very  oldest  formations,  and  proba- 
bly deposited  more  than  100,000,000  years  ago ;  and  what  will  he  see 


163       MODERX  SCIEXCE  AXD  MODERX  THOUGHT. 

on  this  slab  ?  Little  pits  made  by  rain-drops,  higher  on  one  side  than 
the  other,  showing  that  the  shower  fell  during  a  smart  breeze ;  ripple- 
marks  made  by  the  tide  exactly  similar  to  those  now  made  in  the 
estuary  of  the  Mersey  or  Solway,  and  numerous  castings  and  tracings 
made  in  the  wet  sand  by  worms.  What  does  this  prove  ?  That  at 
this  remote  period  the  winds  blew,  the  rain  fell,  the  tides  ebbed 
and  flowed,  implying  the  existence  of  their  cause — the  sun  and  moon ; 
,tkat  an  animal  creation  existed,  which,  as  it  lived  entirely  on  land, 
although  moist  land,  can  hardly  be  described  as  falling  within  the 
category  of  either  a  water  or  an  air  population. 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  instances,  but  it  is  superfluous  to  do 
so,  when  the  late  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  Professor  Huxlej7,  the 
highest  living  authority  on  those  questions,  has  so  recently  as  in  the 
last  number  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  said,  "If  I  know  anything  at  all 
about  the  results  attained  by  the  Natural  Science  of  our  time,  it  is  *  a 
demonstrated  conclusion  and  established  fact'  that  the  fourfold  order 
given  by  Mr.  Gladstone  is  not  that  in  which  the  evidence  at  our  dis- 
posal tends  to  show  that  the  water,  air,  and  land  populations  of  the 
globe  have  made  their  appearance."  To  those  who  have  the  most 
elementary  acquaintance  with  works  like  those  of  Lyell,  Huxley,  and 
Hae'ckel,  the  assumption  that  such  a  succession  is  proved  by  science  must 
appear  as  amazing  as  if  Mr.  Gladstone  had  stated  it  to  be  a  demon-- 
strated  conclusion  that  the  earth  was  flat  and  not  round.  His  other 
arguments  in  support  of  the  Genesis  account  of  creation  are  of  the 
same  nature:  those  of  a  man  fifty  years  behind  his  time  in  everything 
that  relates  to  modern  science. 

The  history  of  creation  contained  in  tho  first  chapter  of  Genesis, 
if  the  words  are  taken  in  their  obvious  and  natural  meaning,  is  per- 
fectly clear  and  consistent.  It  is,  as  Mr.  Gladstone  says,  u  a  singularly 
vivid,  forcible,  and  effective  popular  narrative  ;  or,  if  we  like  to  take  it 
so,  a  sublime  poem" — of  what?  Of  the  cosmogony  common  to  the 
early  thinkers  of  the  ancient  world,  and  which  must  inevitably  have 
been  the  first  conception  of  those  who,  in  the  infancy  of  science, 
began  to  attempt  nn  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  phenomena  pre- 
sented to  the  natural  senses.  Man  and  his  habitation  the  earth  were 
assumed  to  be  the  central  and  primary  fac!^  of  the  universe.  The 
earth  was  first  formed  out  of  chaos;  light  separated  from  darkness, 
the  seas  from  the  land  ;  and  the  whole  surrounded  by  a  firmament  or 
crystal  vault,  solid  enough  to  separate  the  waters  above,  which  caused 
the  rain,  from  the  waters  below,  and  to  support  the  heavenly  bodies 
which  revolved  with  it  in  twenty-four  hours  round  the  earth.  In  this 
firmament  the  sun  was  placed  to  rule  the  day,  and  the  moon  to  rule  the' 
night,  and,  as  its  name,  "the  measurer,"v  denotes,  to  measure  times 
and  seasons.  The  s^ars  also  were  added  as  things  of  minor  impor- 
tance, probably  for  ornament,  or  to  aid  the  work  of  the  moon  in  nights 
when  the  lunar  orb  was  invisible.  The  inorganic  world  being  thus 
created,  the  earth  was  conceived  to  have  been  peopled,  once  for  all, 
with  its  existing  animal  life  by  three  successive  stages,  viz.,  the  fish,  or 
water  population  ;  the  birds,  or  air  population ;  and  land  animals  ;  and 
the  whole  work  crowned  by  the  creation  of  man  in  God's  "own  image." 
This  work  was  conceived  to  have  been  carried  out  by  an  anthropomorphic 
Deity,  or  magnified  man,  who  worked  iike  a  man,  by  regular  spells  of 
il-iy-work,  surveying  each  evening  the  work  of  the  preceding  day  to  see 
that  it  was  properly  done,  and  resting  on  the  seventh  day  nfter  his  week's 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  167 

labors.  This  'is  the  plain,  simple,  and  obvious  meaning  which  the  nar- 
rative must  have  conveyed  to  every  one  to  whom  it  was  addressed  at 
the  time,  as  it  did  to  every  one  who  read  it  until  quite  recently.  The 
question  is,  is  it  a  true  narrative,  that  is,  consistent  with  the  facts  now 
established  ;  and,  if  untrue,  can  the  volume  be  inspired  which  contains 
mistakes  on  matters  of  such  importance  ? 

The  first  observation  is,  that  to  bring  the  question  at  all  within 
the  limits  of  reasonable  discussion  it  is  necessary  to  assume  that  the 
words  of  the  narrative  are  to  be  taken  in  a  non-natural  sense ;  that  is, 
in  a  sense  different  from  the  obvious  meaning  which  they  must  have 
conveyed  to  those  to  whom  they  were  addressed.  This  presents  no 
difficulty  to  Mr.  Gladstone,  whose  mind  has  a  singular  capacity  for 
using  words  in  this  non-natural  sense,  and  saying  things  which  may 
mean  almost  anything  that  the  different  political  or  other  proclivities 
of  different  hearers  may  choose  to  find  in  them.  Thus  he  has  no  diffi- 
culty in  assuming  that  the  "firmament,"  which  supports  the  stars  and 
separates  the  waters,  may  mean  simply  an  expanse;  or  that  if  the 
writer  of  Genesis  says  "davs'' he  means  "periods,"  notwithstanding 
their  duration  being  expressly  defined  by  an  "  evening  and  a  morn- 
ing;" and  the  reference  to  them  as  an~  authority  for  the  seventh 
natural  day  being  taken  as  a  day  of  rest.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  say, 
that  to  ordinary  minds  such  a  use  of  language  by  any  uninspired 
writer  would  be  without  hesitation  termed  "Jesuitical,"  and  that  there 
is  absolutely  no  authority  for  it,  except  in  the  preconceived  determi- 
nation, to  escape,  per  fas  vel  nefas,  from  the  too  direct  antagonism 
between  Scripture  and  science.  But  waiving  this  point,  and  allowing 
the  fullest  latitude  for  non-natural  meanings,  the  difficulty  is  only 
postponed.  The  assumption  that  Laplace's  nebular  hypothesis,  or 
any  other  hypothesis  at  all  consistent  with  known  astronomical  and 
geological  facts,  can  in  any  way  be  reconciled  with  the  "stages  of  the 
majestic  process  described  in  the  Book  of  Genesis"  is  as  untenable  as 
that  of  a  solid  crystal  vault,  or  of  six  literal  days  for  creation.  Mr. 
Gladstone  argues  that  if  the  author  of  Genesis  mentions  the  creation 
of  the  earth  as  the  beginning  of  the  work,  and  introduces  the  sun  and 
moon  only  on  the  fourth  day,  he  may  have  meant,  not  that  the  sun 
and  moon  had  no  previous  existence,  but  that  the  "assignment  to 
them  of  a  certain  place  and  orbit  respectively,  with  a  light-giving 
power,"  only  took  place  long  periods  after  the  geological  structure  of 
the  earth  had  been  completed  by  the  "emergence  of  our  land  and  its 
separation  from  the  sea."  It  is,  of  course,  obvious  that  the  first  con- 
densation of  any  cosmic  nebula  must  have  taken  place  about  a  central 
nucleus ;  in  other  words,  about  a  sun,  and  that  planets  and  satellites 
can  only  have  been  detached  successively,  and  with  their  places  and 
orbits  assigned,  as  the  rotating  mass  contracted.  By  no  possibility 
could  an  intermediate  planet  like  the  earth  have  been  detached  out  of 
its  order  before  other  members  of  its  family. 

Still  more  hazy  are  Mr.  Gladstone's  ideas  respecting  the  separa- 
tion of  light  from  dark,  arid  wet  from  dry.  He  seems  to  consider 
light  and  darkness  as  separate  substances,  which,  like  white  and  black 
beans  mixed  together  in  a  bag,  could  be  taken  out  and  sorted  into  two 
separate  heaps.  No  other  sense  can  be  attached  to  the  employment  of 
vsnch  a  phrase  as  "the  detachment  and  collection  of  light."  It  is,  of 
^course,  well  known  that  light  is  simply  the  vibration  of  an  almost 
infinitely  rare  and  elastic  medium  called  ether,  and  darkness  me 


168       MODERN  SCIENCE  AXD   MODERN  THOUGHT. 

absence  of  such  vibration  ;  and  that  cosmic  matter,  even  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  nebulous  formation,  is  self-luminous,  i.e.,  emits  light. 
IJight,  therefore,  must  inevitably  have  long  preceded  the  aggregation 
of  this  matter  into  the  planet  known  as  the  earth.  The  "  detachment 
of  wet  from  dry,  and  of  solid  from  liquid,"  is  open  to  still  more 
obvious  objection.  It  is  evidently  the  expression  of  one  who  supposed 
that  the  separation  of  sea  from  land  was  a  process  which  took  place, 
once  for.all,  establishing  the  present  configuration  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, whereas  it  is  certain  that  there  has  been  a  perpetual  rising  and 
sinking,  and  alternation  of  sea  and  land,  going  on  from  the  earliest 
geological  periods.  The  chalk,  which  now  forms  a  large  portion  of 
continents  and  rises  into  considerable  hills,  was  formed  at  the  bottom 
of  a  deep  ocean.  The  Wealden,  which,  below  the  chalk,  is  the  Delta, 
formation  of  a  large  river,  implies  the  existence  of  a  continent  drained 
by  that  river  which  has  long  since  disappeared  beneath  the  chalk 
ocean.  And  so  on  for  all  the  stratified  formations  forming  nine-tenths 
of  the  earth's  crust,  which  must  all  have  been  formed  beneath  water  by 
denudation  of  older  rocks,  and  subsequently  upheaved.  Even  in  quite 
recent  times,  and  since  the  appearance  of  man,  Britain  has  been  at  one 
time  an  archipelago  of  islands  in  a  frozen  sea,  and  at  others  part  of  a 
continent,  roamed  over  by  the  mammoth,  the  Irish  elk,  and  the 
reindeer. 

When  we  pass  from  inorganic  to  organic  nature,  the  account  of 
the  creation  of  animated  being  is  in  still  more  direct  opposition  with 
facts.  We  have  already  seen  what  a  mistake  Mr.  Gladstone  commits 
in  supposing  that  the  succession  of  life  was  in  the  regular  order  of  a 
water,  an  air,  and  a  land  population.  But  this  is  a  mere  nothing  to 
the  difficulty  in  reconciling  the  creation  of  those  three  orders  of  being 
in  three  successive  days  with  the  enormous  multitude  of  special 
miraculous  creations  required  to  account  for  the  vast  number  of  sepa- 
rate species  actually  existing  in  separate  zoological  provinces  of  the 
earth,  and  for  the  incalculably  vaster  number  proved  by  their  remains 
to  have  come  into  existence,  nourished,  and  died  out  in  the  older 
geological  formations.  Madeira  alone  contains  no  less  than  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-four  species  of  land  snails  peculiar  to  this  little  group 
of  islands,  of  which  only  twenty-one  are  found  in  Europe  or  Africa. 
If  we  discard  the  theory  of  evolution  for  that  of  miraculous  creation, 
we  must  suppose  the  miraculous  act  to  have  been  exerted  one  hundred 
and  thirteen  times  in  Madeira  alone  for  no  other  purpose  than  that  of 
giving  it  a  variety  of  land  snails. 

It  is,  however,  when  we  come  to  the  creation  of  man  that  the  dis- 
crepancy between  the  account  in  Genesis  and  the  discoveries  of  modern 
science  strikes  us  most  forcibly.  According  to  Genesis,  "  God  created 
man  in  his  own  image,"  at  a  date  which,  measured  by  years  or  genera- 
tions, is  comparatively  recent.  In  the  time  of  Cuvier,  on  whose 
authority  Mr.  Gladstone  relies,  no  geological  evidence  had  been 
discovered  to  confute  this  statement,  and  the  supposed  absence  of 
human  remains  in  connection  with  extinct  animals,  or  in  anything 
older  than  the  merest  superficial  deposits,  was  reasonably  thought  to 
give  it  considerable  support.  But  the  case  was  completely  altered 
when  hundreds  of  thousands  of  undoubted  human  remains  came  to  be 
discovered  in  the  gravels  of  ancient  rivers,  and  securely  sealed  under 
beds  of  stalagmite  in  caves,  associated  with  remains  of  extinct  animals, 
and  under  conditions  implying  enormous  antiquity.  No  one  who  has 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  169 

the  slightest  acquaintance  with  the  subject  any  longer  doubts  that 
Palaeolithic  man  must  have  existed  at  any  rate  during  part  of  the 
Glacial  period,  and  in  all  probability  much  earlier.  His  existence  on 
earth  must  be  measured,  not  by  generations  or  centuries,  but  by  long 
periods,  the  units  of  which  cannot  be  less  than  ten  thousand  years.  It 
is  equally  certain  that  these  primeval  men  existed  in  a  state  of  the 
rudest  savagery,  and  that,  instead  of  falling  from  a  high  state,  the 
course  of  the  human  race  has  been  that  of  slow  and  painful  progress 
upwards  from  rude  and  almost  bestial  beginnings.  These  discoveries,. 
of  which  not  even  a  hint  escapes  from  Mr.  Gladstone  to  show  that  he  is 
aware  of  them,  have  practically  revolutionized  the  attitude  of  modern 
thought  towards  old  creeds.  It  is  no  longer  possible  to  consider  as 
.inspired  revelations,  writings  which  contain  views  as  to  man's  origin 
as  diametrically  opposed  to  actual  facts  as  the  legend  of  Deucalion 
and  Pyrrha,  and  very  much  farther  from  the  truth  than  the  account 
given  in  the  poem  of  Lucretius. 

If  it  requires  some  slight  acquaintance  with  nlodern  science  to 
recognize  fully  the  impossibilities  involved  in  the  account  of  creation 
given  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  none  is  required  to  perceive  the 
manifest  impossibilities  of  what  may  be  called  the  second  creation  of 
animated  life,  described  in  the  narrative  of  the  Noachian  deluge.  Mr. 
Gladstone  makes  no  reference  whatever  to  this,  but  it  is  as  integral  a 
part  of  the  Bible  as  the  account  of  the  original  creation. 

What  does  this  narrative  tell  us  ? 

That  God,  seeing  the  wickedness  of  man,  repented  of  having 
created  him  and  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  and  determined  to 
destroy  them  ;  but  that  Noah,  the  one  just  man,  found  grace  in  His 
sight,  and  was  warned  to  construct  an  ark,  or  big  ship,  in  which  to 
save  from  the  impending  flood  himself  and  family,  and  a  pair,  male  and , 
female,  of  every  living  thing  of  all  flesh,  animals,  birds,  and  reptiles. 
Another  version  makes  the  number  of  each  species  taken  into  the  ark 
seven  of  each  sex  of  clean  animals  and  of  birds,  i.e.,  fourteen  instead 
of  two ;  but  the  smaller  number  may  be  taken,  so  as  to  avoid  the 
appearance  of  wishing  to  exaggerate  the  impossibility  of  the  narra- 
tive. This  being  done,  the  flood  came,  and  covered  "  all  the  high  hills 
that  were  under  the  whole  heaven,"  utterly  destroying  every  living 
thing  upon  the  earth,  except  those  who  were  saved  with  Noah  in  the  ark. 
The  flood  began  on  the  17th  day  of  the  second  month — say  the  17th 
February—  and  lasted  at  its  height  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  days,  the 
ark  grounding  on  Ararat  on  the  17th  July,  and  the  tops  of  the  other 
mountains  being  first  seen  on  the  1st  October.  The  ark  was  opened, 
and  the  animals  came  forth  on  the  27th  February  of  the  succeeding 
year,  so  that  they  were  shut  up  rather  more  than  twelve  months. 
The  account  of  Noah  offering  a  burnt  offering  of  every  clean  beast  and 
fowl  may  be  omitted,  though  clearly  inconsistent  with  the  first  narra- 
tive, which  says  that  only  one  male  and  one  female  of  each  species 
were  preserved  ;  nor  it  is  necessary  to  dwell  on  the  very  rude  anthro- 
pomorphic conception  of  God  which  represents  Him  as  promising 
never  again  to  destroy  the  earth  because  He  was  pleased  by  the  sweet 
savor  of  the  roast  meat. 

Compare  this  narrative  with  actual  facts.  In  the  first  place,  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  in  an  ark  of  the  given  dimensions  is  easily  calcu- 
lated, and  it  is  apparent  that  it  would  be  totally  insufficient  to  accom- 
modate pairs  of  all  the  larger  animals,  such  as  elephants,  giraffes, 


170       MODERN  SCIENCE  AXD  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

rhinoceroses,  bisons,  buffaloes,  oxen  of  various  species,  horses,  asses, 
.zebras,  quaggas,  elks,  and  the  various  species  of  the  deer  family, 
elands  and  other  large  antelopes,  lions,  tigers,  bears,  and  other 
carnivora,  to  say  nothing  of  all  the  enormous  minor  population  of  the 
earth,  the  land  birds,  reptiles,  snails,  insects,  and  so  forth,  which  were 
all  destroyed  by  a  universal  deluge  flooding  the  wrhole  earth  for  a 
year.  To  say  nothing,  also,  of  the  vast  stores  of  provender  for  the 
herbivora,  and  flesh  for  the  carnivora,  which  must  have  been  provided 
in  the  ark  for  more  than  twelve  months'  consumption,  and  of  the 
impossibility  of  arctic  and  tropical  animals  living  together  for  a  year  / 
at  the  same  temperature.  Nor  is  the  difficulty  less,  when  they 
emerged  from  the  ark,  of  seeing  how  the  herbivora  could  exist  until  a 
new  vegetation  had  sprung  up  on  the  earth  soaked  and  sodden  by 
being  for  a  year  under  water,  or  how  the  carnivora  could  exist  without 
preying  on  the  single  pairs  of  herbivorous  animals,  which  were  the 
sole  tenants  of  that  earth  for  long  afterwards.  Nor  is  it  possible 
to  account  for  the  actual  distribution  of  animal  life  in  different 
geological  provinces  if  it  all  radiated  from  the  common  centre  of  a 
mountain  in  Armenia.  Could  the  kangaroo,  for  instance,  have  jumped 
at  one  bound  from  the  top  of  Ararat  to  Australia,  leaving  no  trace  of 
its  passage  in  any  intermediate  district  ?  Or  how  can  the  narrative  be 
reconciled  with  the  fact  of  the  existence,  long  prior  to  any  possible 
date  of  the  Noachian  deluge,  of  an  enormous  variety,  both  of  species 
and  types  of  land  life,  which  were  gradually  developed  into  more  and 
more  specialized  forms,  and  which  appeared  at  different  periods,  grew, 
flourished,  and  finally  decayed  and  disappeared?  Was  the  mammoth, 
whose  skeleton,  still  covered  with  flesh  and  hair,  was  discovered  on  the 
frozen  banks  of  the  Lena,  a  descendant  of  a  pair  of  mammoths  who 
were  saved  in  the  ark;  or  the  Elephas  meridionalis,  whose  bones, 
twice  the  size  of  the  largest  existing  elephant,  are  found  in  the  forest 
bed  at  Cromer ;  or  the  anthropoid  ape  and  sabre-toothed  tiger  of  the 
Miocene;  or  the  palseotherium  and  anoplotherium  of  the  Eocene,  or 
any  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  earth's  land  surface  ? 

No  stretching  of  days  into  periods,  or  other  use  of  words  in  a  non- 
natural  sense,  can  in  the  slightest  degree  get  over  the  glaring 
contradiction  between  the  naive  and  almost  infantile  story  of  Noah's 
ark,  and  the  facts,  I  will  not  say  of  science,  but  of  common  sense  and 
common  observation,  which  are  patent  to  every  decently  well-read 
schoolboy  of  the  rising  generation. 

The  real  u  dawn  of  creation "  is  that  traced  through  three  dif- 
ferent lines  of  scientific  research: 

First,  that  of  astronomy,  showing  the  progressive  condensation 
of  nebulae,  nebulous  stars,  and  suns  in  various  stages  of  their  life 
history. 

Secondly,  that  of  geology,  commencing  with  the  earliest  known 
fossil,  the  Eozoon  Canadiense  of  the  Lauren tian,  and  continued  in  a 
chain;  every  link  of  which  is  firmly  welded,  through  the  Silurian,  with 
its  abundance  of  molluscous,  crustacean,  and  vermiform  life,  and  first 
indication  of  fishes;  the  Devonian,  with  its  predominance  of  fish  and 
first  appearance  of  reptiles;  the  Mesozoic,  with  its  batrachians;  the 
Secondary  formations,  in  which  reptiles  of  the  sea,  land,  and  air  pre- 
ponderated, and  the  first  humble  forms  of  vertebrate  land  animals 
began  to  appear ;  and  finally  the  Tertiary,  in  which  mammalian  life 
has  become  abundant,  and  type  succeeding  to  type  and  species 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  171 

to  species,  are  gradually  differentiated  and  specialized,  through 
the  Eocene,  Miocene,  and  Pliocene  periods,  until  we  arrive  at  the 
Glacial  and  Prehistoric  periods,  and  at  positive  proof  of  the  existence 
of  man. 

Thirdly,  the  line  of  embryology,  or  development  of  every  individ- 
ual life,  from  the  primitive  speck  of  protoplasm,  and  the  nucleated  cell 
in  which  all  life  originates,  passing,  as  in  the  parallel  c  ise  of  types 
'and  species,  through  progressive  stages  of  specialization  from  the 
lowest,  the  amoeba,  to  the  highest,  man. — who,  like  all  other  animals, 
originates  in  a  cell,  and  is  developed  through  stages  undistinguishable 
from  those  of  fish,  reptile,  and  mammal,  until  the  cell  finally  attains 
the  highly  specialized  development  of  the  quadrumanous,  and,  last  of 
all,  of  the  human  type. 

In  like  manner  the  "  dawn  of  worship"  is  to  be  found  in  the  flint 
hatchets  and  other  rude  implements  deposited  with  the  dead,  as  by 
modern  savages,  testifying  to  some  sort  of  belief  in  spirits  and  in  a 
future  existence.  This  clearly  prevailed  in  the  Neolithic,  and  possibly 
in  the  immensely  older  Palaeolithic  period,  though  the  evidjiice  for 
the  latter  is  at  present  very  weak,  and  the  first  object  which  can  be 
affirmed  with  any  certainty  to  be  an  idol  or  attempt  to  represent  a 
deity,  dates  only  from  the  Neolithic  period,  as  do  the  cannibal  feasts, 
which  can  be  proved  to  have  not  infrequently  accompanied  the  inter- 
ment of  important  chiefs.  For  anything  beyond  this  we  have  to 
descend  to  the  Historical  period,  and  turn  to  early  monuments,  myths, 
and  sacred  books.  The  earliest  records  by  far  are  those  of  the  Egyp- 
tian tombs  of  the  first  four  dynasties,  and  they  tell  us  little  more  than 
this,  that  with  a  highly  developed  civilization,  the  idea  of  a  future  life 
was  very  much  that  of  a  continuance  of  the  present  life,  in  a  tomb 
which  was  made  to  resemble  the  deceased's  actual  house,  and  with 
surroundings  which  repeated  his  actual  belongings ;  while  the  whole 
complicated  Egyptian  mythology,  of  symbolized  gods  and  deified 
animals,  was  of  later  origin.  If  we  turn  to  the  earliest  mythologies 
of  the  Aryan  and  of  the  mixed  Semitic  and  other  races  of  Western 
Asia,  we  find  them  plainly  originating,  to  a  great  extent,  in  the  per- 
sonification of  natural  forces,  mainly  of  the  sun,  on  which  are  engrafted 
ideas  of  family,  tribal,  and  national  gods,  and  of  deified  heroes.  Some- 
times, as  the  original  meaning  of  the  names  and  attributes  of  these 
gods  came  to  be  forgotten,  the  mythologies  branched  out  into  innu- 
merable fables;  at  other  times,  among  more  simple  and  severe  races, 
or  with  more  philosophic  minds  in  the  inner  circle  of  a  hereditary 
priesthood,  the  fables  of  polytheism  were  rejected,  and  the  idea  pre- 
Tailed,  either  of  a  unity  of  nature  implying  a  single  author,  or  of  such 
a  preponderance  of  the  national  God  over  all  others  as  led  by  a  differ- 
ent path  to  the  same  result  of  monotheism.  The  real  merit  of  the 
Jewish  race  and  of  the  Hebrew  scriptures  is  to  have  conceived  this 
idea  earlier,  and  retained  it  more  firmly,  than  any  of  the  less  philo- 
sophical and  more  immoral  religions  of  the  ancient  world ;  and  this 
is  a  merit  of  which  they  can  never  be  deprived,  however  much  the 
literal  accuracy,  and  consequently  the  inspiration  and  miraculous 
attributes,  of  these  venerable  books  may  be  disproved  and  disappear. 

Works  like  this  of  Mr.  Gladstone's,  however  well  intentioned,  are 
in  reality  profoundly  irreligious,  for  if — like  the  throw  of  the  gambler, 
who,  when  the  cards  or  dice  go  against  him,  stakes  all  or  nothing  on 
some  desperate  cast — religion  is  staked  on  the  one  issue  that  in  credible 


172      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

narratives  are  true,  and  were  dictated  by  Divine  inspiration,  there  can 
be  but  one  result.  Every  day  brings  to  light  fresh  discoveries  confirm- 
ing the  conclusions  of  science,  and  conflicting  with  the  accounts  of  the 
creation  of  the  world  and  man,  and  of  the  universal  deluge,  given  in 
the  Old  Testament.  Every  day  diffuses  a  knowledge  of  these  discov- 
eries more  widely  among  millions  of  readers.  What  must  be  the 
result  if  men  of  "light  and  leading''  proclaim  to  the  world  that  if  these 
conclusions  of  science  are  true  there  is  an  end  of  religion?  "Evidently 
the  same  as  George  Stephenson  predicted  for  the  cow  who  should 
stand  on  the  rails  and  try  to  stop  the  locomotive,  "  Yarra  awkward  for 
the  coo."  The  really  religious  writers  of  the  present  day  are  those 
who,  thoroughly  understanding  and  recognizing  the  facts  of  science, 
boldly  throw  overboard  whatever  conflicts  with  them,  abandon  all 
theories  of  inspiration  and  miraculous  interferences  with  the  order  of 
nature,  and  appeal,  in  support  of  religion,  to  the  essential  beauty  and 
truth  in  Christianity  underlying  the  myths  and  dogmas  which  have 
grown  up  about  it ;  who,  above  all,  appeal  to  the  fact  that  it  exists 
and  is  a  product  of  the  evolution  of  the  human  mind,  satisfying,  as 
nothing  else  can  do  so  well,  many  of  the  purest  emotions  and  loftiest 
aspirations,  which  are  equally  a  necessary  and  inevitable  product  of 
that  evolution. 

"PROEM  TO  GENESIS." 

Mr.  Gladstone's  first  essay  having  elicited  a  crushing  and  con- 
clusive reply  from  Professor  Huxley,  he  followed  it  up  by  a  second 
one  under  the  above  title,  which  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  rhetorical 
dexterity  with  which  he  withdraws  under  a  cloud  of  smoke  from  the 
positions  rendered  untenable  by  the  Professor's  heavy  artillery,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  defends  the  equally  untenable  positions,  not 
within  his  opponent's  line  of  fire,  by  reiterated  assertion. 

Professor  Huxley  shows  that  the  real  facts,  as  ascertained  beyond 
all  doubt  by  the  researches  of  science,  do  not  correspond  with  the 
order  of  animated  creation  described  in  Genesis.  Mr.  Gladstone  admits 
that  this  "pulverizes  his  proposition  that  there  was  a  scientific  con- 
sensus as  to  a  sequence  like  that  of  Genesis,  in  the  production  of 
animal  life  as  between  fishes,  birds,  mammals,  and  man."  He  rides  off 
by  saying  that  the  writer  of  the  account  of  creation  in  Genesis  "  is  not 
responsible  for  scientific  precision,  that  nothing  can  be  assigned  to 
him  but  a  statement  general,  which  admits  exceptions  ;  popular,  which 
aims  mainly  at  producing  moral  impressions  ;  summary,  which  cannot 
but  be  open  to  more  or  less  of  criticism  in  detail." 

In  a  word,  he  says,  "I  think  it  is  a  sermon."  But  hxnv  is  an 
account  of  creation  evaporated  into  a  sermon  to  prove  revelation  ? 

Partly  by  evaporating  revelation,  which  he  tells  us  does  not 
require  us  to  believe  that  the  Bible  is  strictly  and  literally  true  in  all 
its  statements,  but  that  it  may  have  a  human  element  of  error  and 
uncertainty  in  the  sacred  text.  This  is  virtually  giving  up  the  whole 
case,  for  it  opens  the  door  for  human  reason  to  inquire  at  every  step, 
by  the  ordinary  rules  of  criticism,  whether  any  given  statement  is  part 
of  the  divine  inspiration,  or  part  of  the  *•  human  element"  of  error. 

Mr.  Gladstone  sees  this,  and  shrinks  from  carrying  out  this  line 
of  reasoning  to  its  legitimate  conclusions.  Accordingly  he  falls  back 
on  so  much  of  his  original  assertion  as  has  been  left  undemohshed 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  173 

by  Huxley,  and  endeavors  to  prove  it  by  repeating  it.  Admitting  that 
"  the  statements  of  Genesis  as  to  plants  and  reptiles  cannot  in  all 
points  be  sustained,"  he  contends  that  enough  remains  to  prove 
revelation,  notwithstanding  these  material  errors,  from  the  facts, 
i 'First,  that  such  a  record  should  have  been  made  at  all.  Secondly, 
that  instead  of  dwelling  on  generalities,  it  has  placed  itself  under  the 
severe  conditions  of  a  chronological  order,  reaching  from  the  past 
nisus  of  chaotic  matter  to  the  consummated  production  of  a  fair  and 
goodly,  a  furnished  and  peopled  world.  Thirdly,  that  its  cosmogony 
seems,  in  the  light  of  the  nineteenth  century,  to  draw  more  and  more 
of  countenance  from  the  best  natural  philosophy  ;  and,  Fourthly,  that 
it  has  described  the  successive  origins  of  the  five  great  categories  of 
present  life  with  which  human  experience  was  and  is  conversant,  in 
that  order  which  geological  authority  confirms."  The  first  point  may 
be  briefly  dismissed.  All  religions,  down  to  those  of  the  rudest 
tribes,  begin  with  cosmogonies.  That  of  the  Chaldees  begins,  like  that 
of  Genesis,  with  chaos,  describes  the  separation  of  sea  and  land,  and 
ends  with  the  creation  of  man  ;  only  Bel  is  said  to  have  made  him  from 
clay  animated  with  his  own  blood,  while  Jahveh  is  said  to  have  made 
him  from  the  dust  of  the  earth. 

The  gist  of  the  question  lies  in  the  third  and  fourth  propositions 
as  tested  by  the  second. 

Now  it  is  precisely  this  particularity  of  statement  which  brings 
the  narrative  of  Genesis  into  contradiction  with  facts.  If  it  had  only 
stated  that  the  universe  of  sun,  moon,  stars,  and  earth  had  been 
evolved  from  chaos,  and  that  life  had  appeared  on  the  earth  in  a 
gradation  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  types,  culminating  in  the 
creation  of  man,  there  would  have  been  nothing  in  it  opposed  to 
modern  science,  and,  on  the  contrary,  it  might  have  been  accepted  as  a 
wonderful  anticipation  of  its  discoveries. 

But  when  it  states,  "  under  the  severe  conditions  of  a  chronologi- 
cal order,"  that  the  earth  was  created  on  the  third  day,  as  defined  by 
an  evening  and  a  morning  ;  and  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  on  a  subse- 
quent day ;  and  when  the  vault  of  heaven  is  described  by  a  Hebrew 
word,  which,  while  it  expresses  the  idea  of  expansion,  expresses  also 
that  of  solidity,  sufficient,  as  we  are  told  both  here  and  in  the  account 
of  the  deluge,  to  uphold  waters  and  support  the  heavenly  bodies — 
a  sense  which  is  given  to  it  by  all  ancient  authors  and  by  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Septuagint — it  becomes  evident  that  the  statement  that 
"this  cosmogony  seems,  in  the  light  of  the  nineteenth  century,  to 
draw  more  and  more  of  countenance  from  the  best  natural  philosophy," 
is  as  amazing  as  that  respecting  the  order  of  animated  creation  which 
has  been  "pulverized"  by  Professor  Huxley. 

How  could  a  firmament,  which  was  a  mere  expanse,  support  water, 
and  let  it  down  by  opening  "the  windows  of  heaven,"  when  rain  was 
required  for  a  universal  deluge?  And  how  could  there  be  a  "day" 
defined  by  an  "evening  and  a  morning,"  before  the  sun  had  had 
"assigned  to  it  a  certain  place  and  orbit  and  light-giving  power,"  and  if 
it  existed  at  all,  existed  only  in  the  form  of  a  diffused  and  non-lumin* 
ous  nebulous  haze?  Evening  and  morning  are  perfectly  definite  terms, 
which  imply  the  existence  of  the  sun  and  the  opening  and  closing  of  a 
natural  day  of  twenty-four  hours,  either  by  the  apparent  revolution  of 
the  sun  round  the  earth,  or  by  the  real  rotation  of  the  earth  round  its 
axis,  in  either  case  in  a  "certain  place  and  orbit"  of  the  sun,  and  with 
a  "light-giving  power." 


174       MODERN  SCIEXCE  AXD   MODERN  THOUGHT. 

The  only  attempt  to  support  Mr.  Gladstone's  original  proposition 
is  contained  in  the  reiterated  assertion  that  he  is  not  aware  that  uuy 
serious  flaw  is  alleged  in  the  cosmogony  of  the  Proem,  and  as  regards 
its  account  of  the  creation  of  animated  life  in  the  argument  that  the 
words  probably  meant  mammals  only,  and  that  the  Mosaic  writer  only 
meant  such  animals  "as  were  familiarly  known  to  early  man."  Bub 
the  words  are  most  express;  and  the  serpent,  who  belongs  to  the 
order  of  reptiles  which  existed  before  birds,  and  from  which  birds 
were  probably  developed,  was  certainly  one  of  the  land  animals  with 
which  Eastern  nations  were  most  familiar,  and  with  which  men  had 
the  closest  connection,  as  is  shown  by  the  narrative  of  the  Garden  of 
Eden,  and  the  traces  of  N  iga,  or  snake  worship,  which  are  found  in 
so  many  primitive  and  rude  religions. 

But,  after  all,  the  enormous  difference  between  the  Biblical 
account  of  man's  origin  and  fact  comes  out  most  clearly  in  the  narra- 
tive of  Adam's  fall  and  of  the  Noachian  deluge. 

The  impossibilities  of  the  latter  have  been  clearly  pointed  out ; 
and  it  only  remains  to  add  that  it  requires  us  to  believe  that  all  the 
existing  races  of  mankind — Aryan,  Semitic,  Mongol,  Malay,  Negro, 
Negrito,  Papuan,  American,  Australian,  and  a  multitude  of  others — 
have  been  developed  from  one  family  in  less  than  4,000  years,  while 
we  know,  as  a  positive  fact,  from  the  Egyptian  temples,  that  the  most 
marked  of  these  races,  the  Negro,  existed,  with  all  its  present  char- 
acteristics, more  than  5,000  years  ago,  and  has  not  varied  perceptibly 
during  that  period. 

As  regards  Adam's  fall,  the  discovery  of  Palaeolithic  man  is  that 
which  has  really  given  the  greatest  shock  to  received  theological 
opinions;  for  this  discovery,  which  is  an  entirely  new  one  of  the  last 
half  century,  though  now  confirmed  by  innumerable  instances,  not 
only  flatly  contradicts  the  narratives  of  recent  descent  from  Adam 
and  Noah,  but  it  assails,  in  its  most  vital  point,  the  .whole  dogma  of 
Pauline  Christianity. 

The  two  statements  cannot  both  be  true:  one,  that  man  has 
fallen,  the  other,  that  he  has  risen ;  one,  that  he  was  created  in  God's 
image,  with  high  moral  and  religious  faculties,  and  placed  in  a  garden 
in  a  state  of  innocence  and  happiness,  from  which  he  fell  by  an  act 
of  disobedience,  entailing  a  curse  on  his  descendants  only  partially 
redeemed  by  the  atonement ;  the  other,  that  he  is  the  product  of  an 
evolution,  tending  ever  upwards,  over  immense  geological  periods,  from 
savages  who  chipped  their  rude  flints  on  the  banks  of  frozen  rivers, 
chased  the  mammoth  and  the  reindeer  on  the  plains  of  Southern 
France,  and  held  their  cannibal  feasts  in  caves  excavated  by  small 
streams  which  ran  100  feet  above  their  present  level. 

Which  is  true?  And  can  the  book  be  inspired  which  gives  a 
totally  false  account  of  such  a  vital  matter"?  This  is  the  real  question, 
of  which  Mr.  Gladstone's  two  eloquent  essays  scarcely  even  attempt  to 
touch  the  outer  fringe. 

DRUMMOND'S  "NATURAL  LAW  IN  THE  SPIRITUAL  WORLD." 

It  is  not  surprising  that  this  work  has  had  an  immense  circulation. 
It  professes  to  do  exactly  what  multitudes  of  readers  are  anxious  to  see 
done,  viz.,  to  reconcile  science  and  religion,  and  show  that  the  dogmas 
of  theology  are  not  only  not  inconsistent  with  natural  laws,  but 
actually  based  upon  and  identical  with  them. 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  175 

Professor  Drummond  brings  to  this  task  many  qualifications.  lie 
enters  the  arena,  not  like  the  great  majority  of  orthodox  writers, 
armed  only  with  the  obsolete  bows  and  arrows  of  theological  infalli- 
bility, but  equipped  with  the  improved  weapons  of  modern  scientific 
research.  He  understands  what  is  meant  by  laws  of  nature,  and  does 
not  misrepresent  or  ignore  them.  He  is  learned,  he  is  candid,  and  he 
is  sincere.  His  style  is  clear,  and  his  arguments  and  phraseology  are 
such  that,  while  the  few  who  have  scientific  knowledge  can  understand 
and  appreciate  them,  the  many,  who  do  not  understand,  cannot  fail  to 
find  them  profound  and  convincing  where  they  chime  in  with  their 
preconceived  opinions. 

»  It  is  the  more  necessary,  therefore,  for  those  whose  sole  object  is 
that  truth  should  prevail,  to  examine  the  work  closely,  and  endeavor 
to  show  clearly  what  it  aims  to  accomplish,  how  far  it  succeeds,  and 
how  far  its  conclusions  are  vitiated  by  underlying  fallacies. 

The  fundamental  idea  of  Professor  Drummond's  work  is  summed 
up  in  its  title:  "Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World." 

The  object  is  to  prove  that  the  same  laws  of  nature  which  prevail 
throughout  the  organic  aud  inorganic  worlds  of  science  extend,  with 
an  unshaken  and  identical  continuity,  into  the  world  of  spirits,  and 
give  positive  and  scientific  proof  of  the  dogmas  of  religion. 

To  establish  this  it  is  clear  that  the  fundamental  requisite  is  to 
begin  with  a  precise  definition  and  sufficient  proof  of  the  two  terms  of 
the  proposition:  "What  is  'Natural  Law?'  What  is  the  'Spiritual 
World?"' 

If,  for  instance,  the  proposition  were  that  the  same  identical  law 
of  gravity  prevails  in  the  astronomical  and  geological  worlds,  we  should 
have  to  begin  by  having  a  clear  idea  of  what  we  mean  by  astronomy 
and  what  by  geology.  Astronomy  means  the  knowledge  of  the  sun 
and  its  planets,  of  satellites,  comets,  meteors,  and  those  distant  suns 
and  systems  called  stars  and  nebulae  as  far  as  their  nature  is  disclosed 
to  us  by  the  telescope  and  spectroscope.  The  law  of  gravity  is  shown 
to  prevail  universally  throughout  this  world,  by  experiments  in  the  fall 
of  heavy  bodies,  and  calculations  from  the  observed  orbits  of  all 
heavenly  bodies,  from  the  solar  system  to  the  remotest  double  stars. 

Geology,  again,  is  the  science  of  the  formation  of  the  planet  which 
we  inhabit,  with  its  succession  of  strata  upon  strata,  slowly  deposited, 
frequently  depressed  and  elevated,  and  identified  by  various  types  of 
life,  appearing,  growing,  declining,  and  dying  out,  in  the  different 
formations.  The  prevalence  of  the  identical  law  of  gravity  throughout 
the  vast  periods  of  time  embraced  by  geology  is  easily  proved  from  the 
phenomena  of  denudation  and  stratification.  It  is  clear  that  heavy 
bodies  have  always  gravitated,  as  they  now  gravitate,  towards  the 
earth's  centre,  and  that,  throughout  those  remote  periods,  mountains 
have  been  washed  down  by  rivers  into  the  sea — as  they  are  now  being 
washed  down — and  there  subsided  into  stratified  masses,  which  have 
been  brought  up  again  by  repeated  upheavals. 

But  to  feel  this  certainty,  we  must  have  a  clear  idea  of  geology, 
and  not  a  vague  one,  which  may  include  all  manner  of  catastrophes, 
miraculous  interferences,  and  other  phenomena  unknown  from  any 
experience  of  existing  nature. 

Apply  this  to  Professor  Drummond's  proposition. 

Its  first  term  is  clear  enough;  there  can  be  no  doubt  what  he 
means  by  natural  'laws,  and  no  one  can  define  them  more  forcibly 
and  distinctly. 


176       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

He  tells  us:  "No  man  can  study  modern  science  without  a  change 
coming  over  his  view  of  truth.  What  impresses  him  about  nature  ig 
its  solidity.  He  is  then  standing  upon  actual  things,  among  fixed  laws/' 

And  again: 

"There  is  a  sense  of  solidity  about  a  law  of  nature  which  belongs 
to  nothing  else  in  the  world.  Here  at  last,  amid  all  that  is  shifting, 
is  one  thing  that  is  sure;  one  thing  outside  ourselves,  unbiassed, 
unprejudiced,  uninfluenced  by  like  or  dislike,  by  doubt  or  fear." 

But  how  of  the  other  term  of  the  proposition,  the  "Spiritual 
World?" 

Here  there  is  no  attempt  at  definition,  and  even  the  fact  of  its 
existence  is  asserted  and  not  proved. 

In  his  Introduction,  all  he  says  about  it  is  that  "his  proposal  does 
not  include  an  attempt  to  prove  the  existence  of  the  spiritual  world. 
Does  that  need  proof* '" 

No,  if  you  are  content  to  .keep  to  the  sphere  of  theology,  and 
accept  authority  or  intuition  as  sufficient  proofs.  But  yes,  if  you 
appeal  to  Caesar  and  asked  to  be  tried  by  Caesar's  laws ;  in  other 
words,  if  you  attempt  to  prove  religious  dogmas  by  scientific 
reasonings. 

He  tells  us,  "The  facts  of  the  spiritual  world  are  as  real  to 
thousands  as  the  facts  of  the  natural  world."  So  were  the  facts  of 
witchcraft  and  demonology.  Does  it  prove  them  to  be  true?  How  is 
it  possible  to  decide  whether  certain  laws  do,  or  do  not,  apply  to  the 
spiritual  world,  as  long  as  we  are  left  in  entire  uncertainty  as  to  what 
may  be  meant  by  it,  and  whether  it  is  intended  to  include  everything 
that  is  not  strictly  matter,  such  as  human  consciousness,  individuality, 
intellect,  and  morality ;  or  to  be  confined  to  the  particular  tenets  of 
one  particular  religious  sect?  How  can  we  argue  with  a  man  about 
the  laws  of  the  spiritual  world,  without  knowing  whether  he  is  a 
Plato,  a  Confucius,  or  a  Comte,  who  embraces  the  whole  sphere  of 
humanity ;  or  a  Muggletonian  or  Plymouth  Brother,  whose  idea  of  it 
is  limited  to  the  world  of  those  who  have  been  touched  by 
Divine  grace  to  believe  in  the  special  doctrines  of  his  own  minute 
congregation  ? 

In  the  present  instance  Professor  Drummond's  conception  of  the 
"Spiritual  World"  is  to  be  gathered,  not  from  any  precise  definition, 
but  from  a  careful  perusal  of  his  entire  work,  and  by  a  gradual  process 
of  eliminating  all  that  he  affirms  to  form  no  part  of  it. 

Thus,  we  gradually  discover  that  all  the  natural  elements  of  human- 
ity, all  that  can  be  discovered  by  natural  reason,  all  that  can  be 
explained  and  demonstrated,  lie  totally  outside  his  idea  of  the 
"Spiritual  World." 

"What  now,"  he  says,  "  specifically  distinguishes  a  Christian  man 
from  a  non-Christian  man  ?  Not  a  higher  morality,  nobler  character, 
benevolent  sympathies,  and  reverent  spirit.  The  distinction  between 
them  is  the  same  as  between  the  organic  and  inorganic,  the  living  and 
the  dead." 

And  again: 

"  Were  we  to  construct  a  scientific  classification,  science  would  com- 
pel us  to  arrange  all  natural  man,  moral  or  immoral,  educated  or 
vulgar,  as  one  family.  But  the  spiritual  man  is  removed  from  this 
family  utterly,  by  the  possession  of  an  additional  characteristic." 

What  is  this  characteristic? 


SUPPLEMENTAL   CHAPTER.  177 

The  Professor  asks  and  answers  the  question  in  the  following 
terms : 

"  What  is  the  something  extra  which  constitutes  spiritual  life  ?  It 
is  Christ.  He  that  hath  the  Son  hath  life." 

He  repeats  this  over  and  over  again  with  ever-increasing  emphasis. 

"  The  earthly  mind  may  be  of  noble  calibre,  enriched  by  culture, 
high-toned,  virtuous,  and  pure.  But  if  it  know  not  God  I " 

"  The  Christian  is  an  unique  phenomenon.  You  cannot  account 
for  him.  And  if  you  could,  he  would  not  be  a  Christian." 

If  so,  I  am  afraid  the  Professor's  attempt  to  account  for  him  by 
biogenesis  and  other  natural  laws,  must  be  set  down  as  endeavors  to 
extinguish  this  "  unique  phenomenon,"  and  banish  Christianity  from  the 
world ;  for,  if  this  definition  be  true,  there  would  no  longer  be  any 
Christians,  if  Christianity  could  be  accounted  for  by  rational  argu- 
ments. 

But  it  would  be  unfair  to  take  advantage  of  a  slip  of  the  pen,  or 
exaggeration  of  language,  and  we  pass  this  over  to  inquire  what,  after 
these  explanations,  Professor  Drummond's  "  Spiritual  World "  really 
amounts  to. 

It  is  evident  that  it  is  simply  our  old  friend,  the  "  Shorter  Cate- 
chism," in  a  scientific  dress.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  world  of  Calvinis- 
tic  Christianity — of  the  peculiar  system  of  theology  which  turns  on  the 
ideas  of  original  sin,  fall,  redemption,  regeneration,  election,  and 
predestination. 

The  Professor  does  not  shrink  from  setting  forth  this  theory  in  all 
its  grim  repulsiveness. 

"  It  is  an  old-fashioned  theology,"  he  says,  "  which  divides  the 
world  in  this  way,  which  speaks  of  men  as  living  and  dead,  lost  and 
saved — a  stern  theology  all  but  fallen  into  disuse.  Nevertheless,  the 
grim  distinction  must  be  retained.  It  is  a  scientific  distinction.  He 
that  hath  not  the  Son  hath  not  life." 

That  is  to  say,  that  no  amount  of  moral  excellence  or  intellectual 
superiority,  ever  has  saved  or  ever  can  save  the  natural  man  from  the 
curse  of  death,  entailed  on  him  by  Adam's  act  of  disobedience,  and  that 
a  limited  number  of  elect  only  can  escape  from  it  and  inherit  eternal 
life  by  virtue  of  the  atonement,'  and  "  the  breath  of  God  blowing  where 
it  listeth,  touching  with  its  mystery  of  life  the  dead  souls  of  men,  and 
bearing  them  across  the  bridgeless  gulf  between  the  natural  and  the 
spiritual." 

This  proposition,  he  tells  us,  is,  in  the  first  place,  made  known  to 
us  and  proved  by  revelation,  and  then  confirmed  by  showing  that  it 
is  the  result  of  the  same  identical  natural  laws  as  those  which  prevail 
in  the  domain  of  science. 

The  law  on  which  he  mainly  relies  is  that  of  biogenesis,  which, 
he  says,  "  is  the  fundamental  law  of  life  for  both  the  natural  and 
spiritual  worlds." 

Biogenesis  means,  that  as  far  as  is  at  present  known,  all  life  seems 
to  originate  from  pre-existing  life,  and  that  the  passage  from  the 
inorganic  world  of  dead  matter  to  the  organic  world  of  life,  is  only 
made  in  some  unexplained  way,  which  implies  the  intervention  of  some 
agency  not  reducible  to  known  laws  of  science,  and  which  therefore 
may  be  regarded  as  supernatural.  From  this  he  argues  that  the  same 
supernatural  agency  must  be  assumed  to  continue  throughout  higher 
spheres  of  existence,  and  bridge  the  passage  from  the  natural  to  the 


178       MODERX  SCIEXCE  AXD  MODERX  THOUGHT. 

spiritual  world  just  as  it  bridges  that  from  atoms  of  carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  nitrogen  into  protoplasm. 

The  first  remark  is  that  biogenesis  is  by  no  means  a  demonstrably 
certain  and  universal  law  like  that  of  gravity.  It  simply  amounts  to 
this,  that  up  to  the  present  time  no  demonstration  has  been  given  that 
life  can  be  produced  otherwise  than  from  pre-existing  life  ;  and  that 
certain  experiments  which  appeared  to  establish  the  reality  of  spon- 
taneous generation,  have  been  shown  to  be  fallacious.  But  the  best 
scientific  authorities  who  have  been  foremost  in  detecting  the  fallacy 
of  these  experiments,  are  also  foremost  in  declaring  that  as  a  question 
of  probability  and  not  of  positive  proof,  their  belief  is  that  at  some 
earlier  stage  of  the  earth's  existence,  under  conditions  of  heat,  pres- 
sure, and  electricity,  different  from  those  we  can  now  produce  in  our 
laboratories,  this  passage  from  the  inorganic  to  the  organic  has  taken 
place,  and  no  one  would  be  greatly  surprised  to  hear  to-morrow  of 
some  experiment  by  which  protoplasm  had  really  been  manufactured 
from  chemical  elements. 

It  is  a  long  way  from  this  to  the  certainty  and  universality  of 
laws  like  those  of  gravity  and  the  conservation  of  energy. 

But  waiving  this  objection,  and  supposing  that  biogenesis  was 
really  a  certain  law,  what  would  it  teach  us  ?  By  whatever  process  we 
attempt  to  sound  the  depths  of  the  universe,  we  soon  arrive  at  the 
end  of  our  tether,  and  are  arrested  by  the  Great  Unknown,  which  we 
have  no  faculties  enabling  us  to  penetrate.  From  nebulae  to  stars, 
from  stars  to  suns,  from  suns  to  planets,  from  planets  down  through 
molecules  to  atoms,  we  can  explore  our  way,  and  connect  all  phenom- 
ena by  continuous  laws.  But  what  lies  behind  the  atoms,  what  are 
they,  how  came  they  there  ?  We  know  as  little  as  we  do  of  life,  if  there 
be  life,  in  Saturn ;  or  of  what  space  may  contain  beyond  the  limits 
reached  by  the  most  powerful  telescope. 

If  biogenesis  ^really  be  a  law,  it  simply  brings  us  one  step  nearer 
to  this  Great  Unknown  by  following  the  line  of  living  matter  up  to 
protoplasm,  than  if  we  follow  that  of  inorganic  matter  up  to  atoms. 
It  is  no  more  possible  to  prove  theological  dogmas  from  the  laws  of 
protoplasm  that  it  is  from  the  atomic  theory. 

All  attempts  to  prove  the  extension  of  natural  laws  from  one 
sphere  into  another  which  is  not  in  pari  materia  with  it,  really 
resolve  themselves  into  analogies,  and  no  one  is  more  aware  than 
Professor  Drummondof  the  danger  in  such  cases  of  trusting  to  analogy. 

He  says  :  "  The  position  we  have  been  led  to  take  up  is  not  that 
spiritual  laws  are  analogies  to  natural  laws,  but  that  they  are  the  same 
laws." 

And  again : 

"  Nothing  could  be  more  false  both  to  science  and  religion  than 
attempts  to  adjust  the  two  spheres  by  making  out  ingenious  points  of 
contact  in  detail." 

The  difference  between  analogies  and  proofs  where  the  subject  is 
not  in  pari  materia,  will  be  at  once  apparent  if  we  consider  the  ana- 
logies between  the  world  of  nature  and  that  of  the  human  mind. 
Poetry  consists,  to  a  great  extent,  in  the  faculty  of  vividly  conceiving 
and  expressing  such  analogies.  "When  Byron  compares  the  flash  of 
lightning  in  a  midnight  storm  among  the  Alps,  to  the 

Light  of  a  dark  eye  in  woman, 
it  is  beautiful  poetry. 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  179 

But  does  this  prove  that  because  the  tumult  of  passion  in  a  woman 
often  ends,  like  the  thunderstorm,  in  a  shower  of  tears,  therefore  the 
same  identical  laws  of  electricity  which  cause  the  rain  cause  the  tears  ? 
This  is  Professor  Drummond's  proposition,  and  its  fallacy  will  be  at 
once  apparent. 

Again,  the  danger  of  founding,  religions  on  analogies  will  be 
apparent,  if  we  consider  what  the  consequences  would  be  of  extending 
this  mode  of  reasoning  to  other  religions  that  Christianity,  and  other 
laws  than  biogenesis. 

There  is  no  more  certain  or  more  universal  law  than  that  of  the 
"conservation  of  energy,"  but  if  the  human  soul  is  not  a  mere  attribute 
of  matter,  but  ail  independent  energy,  it  follows,  if  this  law  extends  to 
it,  that  it  can  never  die,  but  only  be  transformed.  The  Calvinistic 
theory  of  death  for  the  immense  majority,  and  life  for  the  few  elect, 
disappears,  and  instead  of  it  we  have  a  religion  like  that  of  the  Brah- 
mins ,and  Buddhists,  teaching  the  transmigration  of  souls  from  one 
form  of  life  to  another,  and  the  final  absorption  of  all  the  separate  rills 
of  individual  life  in  the  great  ocean  of  Pantheism. 

Again,  polarity  is  a  most  universal  law,  and  here  we  really  do  know 
that  it  extends  not  only  throughout  the  inorganic  and  organic  worlds, 
but  also  into  what  may  by  called  the  natural  spiritual  world — the  world 
of  laws  and  morals,  of  arts  and  sciences,  of  practical  conduct,  of  social 
and  political  problems.  There  is  scarcely  a  question  to  which  the 
apologue  does  not  apply  of  the  knights  who  fought  because  they  could 
each  see  only  one  side  of  the  shield,  and  with  reference  to  which  true 
wisdom  has  not,  in  the  words  of  the  poet,  to 

Turn  to  scorn  with  lips  divine 
The  falsehood  of  extremes. 

What  follows?  Shall  we  embrace  the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  which 
certainly  gives  us  the  best  embodiment  of  this  all-prevailing  law,  and 
presents  it  to  us  in  the  form  best  adapted  for  a  great  many  of  the 
realities  of  practical  life  ? 

The  real  truth  is  that  religion,  in  the  sense  in  which  Professor 
Drummond  uses  the  words  "  spiritual  life,"  and  in  which  the  majority  of 
the  Christian  world  accept  it,  can  only  be  proved  by  revelation.  This 
he  admits  himself,  for  he  says  :  "  The  revelation  must  be  assumed. 
The  information,  in  the  first  instance,  must  be  vouchsafed  as  a 
revelation." 

The  truth  therefore  of  any  system  of  theology,  which  professes  to 
teach  things  undiscoverable  by  ordinary  human  reason,  must  depend 
on  two  things. 

Firstly,  the  evidence  for  the  revelation  by  which  it  is  made 
known. 

Secondly,  its  accordance  with  other  known  and  undoubted  natu- 
ral laws. 

The  second  point  may  be  considered  first,  for,  although  natural 
laws  cannot  of  themselves  discover  or  prove  dogmas  beyond  the 
province  of  natural  reason,  yet,  as  all  truth  must  be  consistent  with 
itself,  it  is  not  possible  to  believe  in  any  revelation  which  professes  to 
teach  things  absolutely  irreconcilable  with  fundamental  laws,  either  of 
the  scientific  or  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  worlds.  No  educated 
man  could  sincerely  believe  a  theology  which  taught  that  the  earth  was 
flat  and  not  round,  that  the  law  of  gravity  was  that  of  the  inverse  cube 


180       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

and  not  the  square  of  the  distance,  or  that  cruelty  and  ingratitude  are 
virtues  and  not  vices. 

Tried  by  this  test,  the  weakness  of  Professor  Drummond"s  assump- 
tion of  a  "spiritual  world,"  based  on  the  lines  of  Calvinistic  theology, 
is  at  once  apparent.  Stripped  of  high-sounding  theological  language, 
and  stated  in  plain  English,  what  does  it  amount  to? 

Suppose  we  read  in  Herodotus  a  narrative  how  some  great  Asiatic 
king  of  kings — say,  Cambyses,  the  son  of  Cyrus — offended  by  some 
act  of  disobedience  on  the  part  of  the  governor  of  a  province,  made  a 
decree  sentencing  all  the  inhabitants  of  that  province  to  be  put  to  death 
on  attaining  a  certain  age;  how  the  monarch's  only  son  interceded  for 
them  with  his  father,  but  was  told  that  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and 
Persians  could  not  be  changed,  and  that  none  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  province  could  escape  the  penalty  unless  the  son  offered  himself  as 
a  sacrifice  and  atonement  for  them ;  how  the  son,  being  a  noble  and 
generous  character,  offered  himself  accordingly,  and  was  put  to  a  pain- 
ful death ;  and  thereupon  the  monarch  remitted  the  penalty,  not  to  all, 
but  to  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  province, 
selected  by  lot,  or  by  his  favor,  "blowing  where  it  listed." 

Will  Professor  Drummond,  or  any  one  else,  tell  us  how  this  narra- 
tive differs  from  the  Calvinistic  scheme  of  theology,  or  how  it  can  be 
reconciled  with  those  moral  laws  of  justice,  mercy,  and  loving-kindness, 
which  have  come  to  be  fundamental  laws  in  the  conceptions  and  con- 
sciences of  all  civilized  races  of  mankind  ? 

If  it  were  possible  to  conceive  of  any  revelation  of  such  a  scheme, 
supported  by  evidence  so  cogent  and  irresistible  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  doubt  it,  the  only  logical  conclusion  would  be  that  the  divine 
scheme  of  the  universe  was  that  of  Zoroaster ;  a  polarity  between  the 
two  opposing  principles  of  good  and  evil,  the  latter  embodied  in  the 
father  and  the  former  in  the  son.  But  the  practical  conclusion  would 
probably  be  either  blank  scepticism,  or  a  belief  that  there  was  a  mis- 
take somewhere,  either  in  the  revelation,  or  in  the  interpretation  of  it. 

This,  at  any  rate,  is  clear,  that  the  evidence  for  such  a  revelation 
must  be  of  the  most  cogent  and  convincing  character  to  induce  any 
reasonable  man,  who  approached  the  subject  without  prepossession,  to 
entertain  it  for  a  moment,  and  that  without  such  evidence  no  possible 
analogy  between  the  scheme  and  some  one  or  two  out  of  the  many 
laws  of  nature,  could  induce  him  to  believe  it. 

Now,  this  is  precisely  the  point  which  the  defenders  of  orthodox 
theology  ignore  or  overlook.  The  ever-increasing  scepticism  of  the 
age,  of  which  they  complain,  is  based,  not  upon  refined  philosophical 
speculations,  or  abstruse  arguments,  but  upon  certain  plain  and 
matter-of-fact  considerations,  which  the  discoveries  of  modern  science 
have  forced  on  the  minds  of  thinking  men. 

Orthodox  Christianity  is  based  on  revelation ;  what  is  revelation 
based  on?  On  the  Bible — the  whole  fabric  depends  on  the  belief  that 
the  Bible  is  an  inspired  record  conveying  a  Divine  message  from  God 
to  man. 

Such  a  record  it  is  clear  cannot  contain  errors  and  contradictions 
upon  material  points  affecting  the  whole  scope  and  tenor  of  the  mes- 
sage. If  it  appear,  upon  strong  primd  facie  evidence  of  scientific 
laws  and  facts,  that  it  does  contain  such  errors  and  contradictions, 
faith  must  be  shaken  ;  and  the  first  condition  of  restoring  it  must  be 
to  show,  either  that  these  scientific  facts  are  mistaken,  or  that  the 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  181 

accounts  in  the  Bible  can  be  reconciled  with  them.  Thus,  for  instance, 
the  account  of  the  creation  of  the  material  universe,  earth,  sun,  moon, 
and  stars,  given  in  Genesis,  seems  to  be  absolutely  inconsistent  with 
the  real  facts  as  ascertained  by  astronomy  and  geology — that  of  the 
animated  creation  still  more  so,  whether  as  described  in  Genesis,  or 
even  more  palpably  in  the  narrative  of  the  deluge,  and  what  may 
be  called  the  second  creation  of  life,  in  which  all  the  varieties  of 
the  human  species  and  the  whole  innumerable  varieties  of  animal 
land  life  are  said  to  be  descendants  of  single  pairs  who  were  pris- 
oned together  in  the  ark  for  more  than  twelve  months,  and  whose 
progeny  radiated  only  some  4,000  years  ago  from  a  single  centre 
on  a  mountain  in  Armenia. 

And  most  destructive  of  all  to  old  beliefs,  the  recent  discoveries 
of  the  remains  of  Palaeolithic  man  shatter  into  fragments  the  account 
of  man's  descent  from  an  Adam  created  quite  recently,  in  God's  image, 
with  high  faculties,  in  a  state  of  innocence  and  happiness,  from  which 
lie  fell  by  an  act  of  disobedience ;  and  again,  still  more  palpably,  from 
a  Noah  who  was  saved  in  an  ark  at  a  elate  not  nearly  so  remote  from 
us  as  the  historical  monuments  of  the  earlier  Egyptian  dynasties. 

If  the  facts  really  are  that  man's  existence  on  the  earth  can  be 
traced  back  for  enormous  periods,  during  which  he  has  slowly  but 
constantly  progressed  from  a  state  of  the  rudest  savagery  towards 
civilization  and  morality,  how  can  this  be  reconciled  with  the  theory 
of  Adam's  fall,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  whole  superstructure 
of  redemption  and  regeneration? 

And  how  can  the  facts  be  denied,  unless  we  are  prepared  to  admit 
that  the  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Palaeolithic  remains  found 
from  Europe  to  China,  have  been  placed  there  by  a  conspiracy  of  all 
the  geologists  of  the  world,  to  forge  proofs  contradictory  of  the  Mosaic 
narrative? 

Again,  if  we  turn  to  the  New  Testament,  is  it  possible  to  consider 
writings  inspired  which  contain  the  most  distinct  and  definite  prophecy 
that  a  certain  event,  the  end  of  the  world,  would  take  place  within  a 
certain  definite  period,  the  lifetime  of  some  of  the  existing  generation, 
when,  in  point  of  fact,  it  did  not  occur,  and  has  not  occurred,  for 
nineteen  centuries  afterwards?  Or,  how  can  we  believe  them  inspired, 
if  some  of  the  principal  witnesses  say  of  the  cardinal  miracle  of  the 
ascension,  that  they  were  commanded  to  go  to  Galilee  to  witness  it, 
while  others,  who  describe  it  fully  and  in  detail,  say  that  they  were 
commanded  not  to  go  to  Galilee,  but  to  remain  in  Jerusalem,  where 
the  miracle  actually  took  place  ?  Or  how  can  we  account  for  the  oldest 
manuscript  of  the  Gospel,  which  is  certainly  one  of  the  nearest,  if  not 
the  nearest,  to  the  original  narrative,  that  according  to  St.  Mark, 
omitting  altogether  any  mention  of  any  miraculous  event  connected 
with  the  resurrection  ? 

These  are  the  sort  of  difficulties  which  force  themselves  on  the 
minds  of  all  who  have  the  most  elementary  acquaintance  with  the  facts 
of  modern  science  and  the  researches  of  Biblical*  criticism.  They  are 
plain  questions  which  require  a  plain  answer ;  and,  until  it  is  given, 
it  is  idle  to  appeal  to  authority  and  tradition,  or  to  think  that  any 
amount  of  ecclesiastical  scolding,  or  appeals  to  misty  metaphysics,  or 
far-fetched  analogies  to  natural  laws,  can  restore  the  simple  creed  of 
our  ancestors,  or  prevent  the  faith  of  educated  men  from  becoming 
day  fainter  and  fainter.  If  an  answer  can  be  given,  by  all  means 


182       MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

let  it  be  given.  "Why  should  men,  like  Professor  Drummond,  who 
understand  what  natural  laws  really  mean,  and  are  conversant  with 
the  discoveries  of  modern  science,  be  content  to  base  the  whole  case 
for  their  "spiritual  world"  on  texts  from  St.  Paul  and  St.  John,  leaving 
the  real  foundations  of  belief  to  be  defended  by  champions  who  rush 
into  the  field  with  the  intrepidity  of  ignorance,  and  injure  the  cause 
they  advocate  by  the  obvious  weakness  of  their  arguments'? 

Let  Professor  Drummond,  or  any  one  else  who  is  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  latest  discoveries  of  astronomy,  geology,  zoology, 
biology,  palaeontology,  and  Biblical  criticism,  face  the  real  difficulties 
of  orthodox  belief,  and  show  by  reasonable  arguments  how  science 
and  religion  can  be  reconciled,  and  he  will  meet  with  no  prejudiced 
opposition.  On  the  contrary,  the  great  majority  of  mankind,  includ- 
ing men  of  science,  will  be  only  too  glad  to  be  able  to  exchange  the 
fainter  for  the  larger  hope.  Because  a  man  is  acquainted  with  the 
facts  of  science  he  is  not  enamoured  of  annihilation,  and  would  be 
delighted  to  find  some  secure  basis  on  which  to  rest  hopes  of  a  future 
life,  and  of  again  seeing  lost  and  loved  faces ;  nor  could  he  object  to 
any  additional  sanction  from  revelation  being  given  to  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  or  St.  Paul's  definition  of  Christian  charity. 

But,  if  he  is  acquainted  with  these  facts,  and  at  all  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  scientific  inquiry  which  characterizes  the  age  in  which  he 
lives,  he  asks  for  evidence ;  not  absolutely  certain  or  demonstrative 
evidence,  like  that  for  a  proposition  of  Euclid,  but  reasonable  evidence, 
such  as,  standing  after  being  called  into  court  and  cross-examined, 
would  satisfy  a  competent  and  impartial  jury. 

Such  evidence  has  not  hitherto  been  forthcoming,  and  assuredly 
is  not  supplied  by  this  work  of  Professor  Drummond's.  In  the  mean- 
time objections — not  captious,  but  real,  solid,  reasonable  objections — 
are  multiplying  every  day ;  and  every  attempt  to  answer  them  makes 
it  only  clearer  that  the  old  theology  rests  on  assertion  and  authority, 
and  not  on  fact  and  argument. 

When  the  point  of  attachment  of  a  chain  has  given  way  it  becomes 
almost  a  work  of  supererogation  to  test  the  strength  of  each  separate 
link.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  say  that,  starting  from  the  assumption 
that  the  spiritual  world  is  identical  with  the  Calvinistic  creed,  and 
that  the  truth  of  this  creed  is  proved  by  revelation  and  confirmed  by 
biogenesis,  the  rest  of  Professor  Drummond's  work  consists  of 
attempts  to  preach  science  into  this  creed,  and  show  that  its  peculiar 
tenets  have  analogies  in  other  natural  laws. 

Thus,  the  law  of  degeneration,  by  which  organs  dwindle  and  dis- 
appear by  want  of  use,  is  used  as  an  analogy  for  the  decay  of  faculties 
by  neglect,  which,  if  cultivated,  might  have  raised  the  soul  to  a  higher 
level. 

The  law  of  growth  is  quoted  in  support  of  the  doctrine  of  elec- 
tion, as  showing  that  in  either  case  the  growth  is  not  the  result  of 
conscious  effort,  but  of  some  miraculous  gift  conferred  by  the  grace  of 
God  "blowing  where  it  listeth."  We  cannot,  "by  taking  thought, 
add  a  cubic  to  our  stature ; "  and  by  the  same  law  we  are  told  that  we 
cannot — by  any  amount  of  conscious  effort,  raising  us  to  a  purer  life 
and  higher  morality — bring  ourselves  one  step  nearer  to  salvation. 
It  is  true  this  is  flatly  contradicted  by  the  previous  law,  which  attri- 
butes the  loss  of  salvation  to  neglect ;  but  such  trifles  as  flat  contradic- 
tions do  not  much  affect  those  who  attempt  to  "read  science  inta 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  183 

religion,"  and  they  easily  escape  detection  if  wrapped  up  in  long 
scientific  words  and  lubricated  by  an  unctuous  theology. 

Death  is  the  subject  of  the  next  chapter,  and  the  argument  is 
that,  as  death  may  be  considered  in  the  last  resort  to  be  the  ceasing  to 
be  in  correspondence  with  the  environment,  it  is  the  inevitable  fate  of 
all  who,  not  having  been  led  by  Divine  grace  to  adopt  the  Calvinistic 
creed,  are  not  in  harmony  with  God ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  eternal 
life  is  the  necessary  attribute  of  all  who  have  thus  been  brought  into 
harmony  with  an  eternal  and  unchanging  environment. 

It  is  wonderful  how  high-sounding  theories  are  apt  to  collapse 
when  touched  by  the  Ithuriel  spear  of  plain  English.  This  of  death 
being  the  ceasing  to  correspond  with  the  environment  simply  amounts 
to  this :  that  if  we  had  not  died  we  should  be  still  alive — a  truism 
which  does  not  advance  us  much  towards  a  solution  of  the  great 
problem  of  a  future  life.  To  the  ordinary  apprehension  of  ordinary  men 
the  question  of  a  future  life  means  this:  shall  we,  after  death,  retain 
the  consciousness,  or  personal  identity,  which  in  this  life  distinguishes 
each  individual  from  the  surrounding  universe.  The  practical  test 
most  would  try  it  by  is — shall  be  able  to  meet  and  recognize  those 
whom  we  have  loved  and  lost? 

The  only  elements  reason  is  able  to  supply  towards  this  moment- 
ous question  are  that,  as  far  as  our  experience  and  knowledge  extend, 
this  life  of  conscious  personal  identity  is  indissolubly  connected  with 
a  material  organ — the  brain.  It  did  not  exist  before  we  were  born ; 
it  only  came  gradually  into  existence  as  the  infant  brain  grew  and 
received  impressions ;  it  is  suspended  when  the  action  of  the  brain  is 
suspended,  as  in  dreamless  sleep  and  suspended  animation;  it  is 
strangely  distorted  or  duplicated  in  abnormal  conditions  of  the  brain, 
as  in  trance  or  hypnotism.  What  will  become  of  it  when  the  brain  is 
dissolved  into  its  elements'?  No  voice  comes  from  beyond  the  grave  to 
tell  us.  It  is  the  mystery  of  mysteries. 

Behind  the  veil,  behind  the  veil ! 

It  is  simply  childish  to  tell  us  that  the  unknown  can  be  solved  by 
any  analogy,  more  or  less  fanciful  and  far-fetched,  to  the  natural  laws 
which  bind  together  phenomena  which  we  really  do  know.  Because 
matter  cannot  be  created  or  destroyed,  but  only  transformed,  what 
does  this  tell .  us  as  to  whether  personal  identity  will  be  continued 
after  death,  or  annihilated,  or  absorbed  in  the  great  ocean  of  an  all- 
pervading  spirit  ? 

The  next  chapter  is  on  mortification.  This  hardly  takes  the 
form  of  scientific  argument,  but  is  substantially  a  sermon  on  the  text 
of  "If  thine  eye  offend  thee,  pluck  it  out."  As  far  as  any  argument 
goes,  the  inference,  as  stated  by  Professor  Drummond  himself,  seems 
to  be  that  the  best  course  would  be  for  a  man,  directly  he  felt  the 
Tivifying  influence  of  Divine  grace,  to  commit  suicide,  and  thus  escape 
from  the  old  environment  of  the  natural  man  into  the  safe  refuge  of 
eternal  life.  If,  in  condescension  to  human  weakness,  this  extreme 
remedy  is  not  adopted,  the  next  best  course  is  "to  die  as  much  as  he 
can,"  and  withdraw  from  all  the  duties,  affections,  interests,  and 
pleasures  of  natural  life,  into  a  rigid  asceticism. 

To  become  a  Christian  fakir  is  the  ideal  set  before  us  for  those 
who  have  not  the  courage  to  adopt  the  more  complete  remedy  of 
suicide. 


184      MODERN  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

The  chapter  on  eternal  life  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  argu- 
ment as  that  on  death. 

If  Herbert  Spencer,  in  a  philosophical  discussion  on  life  and 
death,  tells  us  that  with  an  eternal  correspondence  between  an 
organism  and  its  environment  the  organism  would  live  for  ever,  he 
simply  tells  us,  in  abstract  terms,  that  if  there  were  no  cause  for  death 
we  should  continue  to  live.  This,  Professor  Drummond  calls  "one  of 
the  most  startling  achievements  of  recent  science,  and  a  contribution 
of  immense  moment  to  the  religious  mind." 

No  one  would  probably  be  more  surprised  than  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  to  find  that  this  generalization  of  his  had  been  accepted  as  a 
positive  scientific  proof  of  the  "  Shorter  Catechism."  The  Professor 
is  much  too  apt  to  forget  the  sage  aphorism  which  implies  to  philo- 
sophical and  theological  speculations,  as  well  as  to  more  sublunary 
matters:  "First  catch  your  hare."  First  prove  the  reality  of  your 
spiritual  life,  and  it  will  be  time  to  consider  the  different  scientific 
sauces  with  which  it  may  be  dressed  up. 

In  what  possible  way  does  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer's  generalization 
affect  the  question  whether  the  Bible  is  inspired ;  whether  it  is  a  true 
revelation  of  things  otherwise  unknowable ;  and  if  it  be,  whether  the 
Calvinistic  creed  is  the  true  interpretation  of  it  ?  All  these  are  ques- 
tions which  require  to  be  established  by  solid  proof,  before  we  can 
even  enter  on  the  discussion  of  whether  anything  can  be  be  found  in 
scientific  laws  or  philosophical  definitions,  which  may  be  thought  to 
afford  a  more  or  less  fanciful  analogy  to  its  peculiar  dogmas. 

After  eternal  life  comes  environment,  and  here,  perhaps,  the  con- 
trast between  the  scientific  lecturer  and  the  popular  preacher  comes 
out  more  sharply  than  in  any  other  chapter.  The  first  half  is  taken  up 
by  enumerating  instances  of  the  dependence  of  organisms  on  their 
environment.  He  shows  how  the  color  of  animals  is  modified  by  their 
surroundings;  how  the  polar  bear  is  white,  the  tiger  striped,  the 
flounder  of  sandy  hue ;  how,  without  air,  there  could  be  no  mammals, 
without  water  no  fish,  without  environment  no  life.  And  then  he 
jumps  at  once  to  this  astounding  corollary,  that  these  facts  are  a  mere 
scientific  re-statement  of  the  saying  of  Christ :  "  Without  me  ye  can  do 
nothing ; "  and  the  rest  of  the  chapter  is  very  much  in  the  tone  of  an 
ordinary  sermon  on  the  text  of  the  "lillies  of  the  field,"  or,  "take  no 
thought  for  the  morrow,"  inculcating  absolute  dependence  on  the 
spiritual  environment,  "which  is  God." 

Conformity  to  type. 

The  scientific  portion  of  this  chapter  is  based  on  the  fact  that, 
within  a  limited  range  of  time  types  breed  true,  and  species  of  animal 
life  are  distinguished  from  one  another  by  differences  which  remain 
constant  and  admit  of  classification.  The  theological  inference  drawn 
is  that,  "  As  the  bird-life  builds  up  a  bird  the  image  of  itself,  so  the 
Christ-like  builds  up  a  Christ  the  image  of  Himself,  in  the  inward 
nature  of  man." 

The  practical  conclusion  is  that  this  establishes  the  doctrine  of 
predestination.  <4-Whom  He  did  foreknow,  He  also  did  predestinate  to 
be  conformed  to  the  image  of  His  Son." 

He  adds:  "One  must  confess  that  the  originality  of  the  entire 
New  Testament  conception  is  most  startling." 

No  wonder,  for  to  any  ordinary  mind  it  must  appear  startling  to 
be  told  that  predestination  is  a  certain  fact  because  dogs  are  not  bred 
from  birds'  eggs. 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  185 

To  establish  even  the  faintest  analogy  to  the  Christ-life  which  is 
assumed,  it  would  be  requisite  to  prove  that  higher  types  have  invariably 
been  evolved  from  lower  ones,  by  some  miraculous  influence  trans- 
forming at  once  a  certain  number  of  favored  individuals.  Directly 
the  contrary  is  known  to  be  the  case. 

Types  have  arisen,  flourished,  in  some  cases  decayed  and  died  out, 
in  others  been  transformed,  not  by  any  sudden  process,  but  by  the 
slow  accumulation  over  long  periods  of  time,  of  individual  peculiarities, 
accumulated  and  fixed  by  the  action  of  heredity  and  environment. 
Bird-life  was  not  always  bird-life;  it  began  as  reptilian  life,  and  the 
Archceopteryx  is  more  of  a  lizard  than  of  a  bird. 

If  "conformity  to  type"  really  taught  anything,  it  would  tell 
rather  in  favor  of  death  than  of  life,  for  it  is  certain  that  many  highly 
organized  types  of  life  have  died  out  and  disappeared  during  past 
geological  ages,  and  science,  in  the  case  of  the  moon,  which  being  a 
smaller  body  than  the  earth  has  gone  though  its  course  of  evolution 
quicker,  points  rather  to  ultimate  death  than  to  the  passage  into  a 
higher  stage  of  existence,  of  all  suns,  planets,  and  their  inhabitants. 
But  it  would  be  as  unscientific  to  draw  conclusions  from  this,  or  from 
the  law  by  which  all  energy  tends  to  run  down  into  one  uniform  ocean 
of  rest,  as  temperatures  become  equalized,  in  favor  of  death  as  the  law 
of  the  Unknown,  as  it  is  for  Professor  Drummond  to  draw  from  the 
same  premises  the  conclusion  of  a  Christ-life.  It  is  either  altogether 
unknown,  or  known  only  by  revelation,  and  the  first  condition  of  the 
problem  is  to  prove  the  revelation. 

Parasitism  and  semi-parasitism. 

These  chapters  give,  in  much  detail,  instances  of  the  natural  law 
by  which  organisms  who  take  life  too  easily  and  lean  on  others  for  sup- 
port, degenerate  and  fall  low  in  the  scale  of  existence. 

Thus  the  hermit  crab,  who  is  too  lazy  to  make  his  own  shell,  and 
borrows  the  cast-off  shell  of  some  mollusk,  loses  the  shell-secreting 
faculty,  and  falls  behind  the  more  laborious  common  crab.  This  is 
called  semi-parasitism,  while  parasitism  proper  extends  to  the  cases 
where  the  animal  lives  in  another  living  animal,  and  d^wnerates  into 
a  mere  sac,  absorbing  nourishment  and  laying  eggs. 

The  conclusions  drawn  from  this  collection  of  interesting  facts 
are  certainly  most  extraordinary.  "  Roman  Catholicism  is  an  organi- 
zation specially  designed  to  induce  the  parasitic  habit  in  the  souls  <  of 
men.  It  offers  the  masses  a  molluscous  shell."  Even  more  startling^ 
it  is  to  be  told  that  "one  of  the  things  in  the  religious  world  which 
tends  most  strongly  to  induce  the  parasitic  habit  is  going  to  church" 
The  italics  are  not  mine  but  the  Professor's.  And  again :  "  In  those 
churches,  especially  when  all  parts  of  the  worship  are  subordinated 
to  the  sermon,  this  species  of  parasitism  is  peculiarly  encouraged." 

Nay,  more,  the  better  the  preacher  the  greater  is  the  danger,  and 
if  "  Providence  had  not  mercifully  delivered  the  Church  from  too  many 
great  men  in  its  pulpits,"  the  consequences  would  have  been  most 
disastrous  to  a  large  circle  of  Christian  people.  Church-going  Chris- 
tians may  perhaps  find  some  consolation  in  the  obvious  fact,  that  if 
parasitism  be  such  a  deadly  danger  its  extremest  form  would  be  found 
in  the  very  spiritual  life  which  Professor  Drummond  is  attempting  to 
prove.  A  more  complete  analogy,  to  the  parasitic  sac  cannot  be  found 
than  that  of  a  man  who,  fastening  on  to  the  Calvinistic  creed,  and 
arriving  at  the  conviction  that  he  is  one  of  the  elect,  proceeds,  as  the 


186       MODERX  SCIENCE  AND  MODERN  THOUGHT. 

Professor  advises,  "  to  die  as  much  as  he  can,"  and  abstracts  himself 
from  all  the  interests  and  duties  of  his  natural  environment. 

The  chapters  are.  chiefly  interesting  as  showing  the  length  to 
which  a  learned  and  sincere  man,  who  starts  from  the  predetermina- 
tion to  believe  a  particular  creed,  can  go  on  inventing  arguments  in 
its  support,  which,  if  they  were  worth  anything,  would  really  be  most 
conclusive  against  it. 

Classification. — The  argument  of  this  last  chapter  is  not  very 
apparent.  No  doubt  all  the  facts  of  the  inorganic  and  organic  worlds, 
and  those  relating  to  natural  man,  admit  of  being  arranged  and 
classified.  Religions  also  may  bo  classified  so  far  as  they  relate  to 
known  facts.  Thus  Mahometanism  and  Christianity  may  be  classified 
as  two  of  the  world's  religions,  for  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that 
there  are  many  millions  both  of  Mahometans  and  of  Christians.  Or, 
again,  religions  may  be  classified  as  monotheistic  or  polytheistic,  for, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  both  have  existed.  But  this  tells  us  nothing  of 
their  intrinsic  or  relative  truth. 

So,  if  we  assume  the  existence  of  Professor  Drummond's  spiritual 
world,  those  who  belong  to  it,  or  even  without  assuming  its  existence, 
those  who  believe  in  it,  may  fairly  be  classed  as  a  distinct  sect  from 
the  rest  of  mankind.  But  this  no  more  proves  its  reality  than  the 
classification  of  negroes  as  fetish-worshippers  proves  the  truth  of  fetish 
worship.  As  usual,  he  has  to  fall  back  on  texts,  and  quotes  from  St. 
John  and  St.  Paul,  sayings  which  seem  to  establish  the  reality  of  a 
wide  distinction  between  carnal  and  spiritual  life. 

It  might  fairly  be  asked  how  we  can  be  certain  that  many  of  these 
sayings  are  not  merely  tho  highly-colored  metaphorical  expressions  in 
which  the  Eastern  mind  invariably  clothes  its  ideas,  and  whether  they 
ought  to  be  taken  in  the  strict  and  literal  sense,  which  the  words 
present  to  the  more  practical  and  scientific  European  intellect. 

But  apart  from  this  question,  how  does  the  fact  that  natural 
phenomena  admit  of  classification,  advance  in  the  slightest  degree  the 
proposition  that,  in  addition  to  the  known  inorganic  and  organic  king- 
doms, there  must  be  a  third  unknown  kingdom,  which  may  be  best 
designated  as  the  "  Kingdom  of  God? ''  There  may  or  may  not  be  such 
a  kingdom,  but  assuredly,  apart  from  revelation,  we  can  no  more 
prove  or  disprove  from  natural  laws,  that  we  shall  live  after  death, 
than  we  can  that  we  have  lived  before  birth. 

It  would  be  easy,  taking  each  chapter  in  detail,  to  show  the 
fallacies  involved  in  many  of  the  analogies,  and  the  extent  to  which 
scientific  facts  have  been  disturbed  by  the  preconceived  determination 
to  make  them  square  with  the  theory  of  a  "  Spiritual  Life."  For 
instance,  when  in  order  to  prove  the  doctrine  of  eternal  life,  we  are 
told,  "  that  as  we  ascend  in  the  scale  of  life  we  also  rise  in  the  scale  of 
longevity,"  forgetting  that,  in  this  case,  the  parrot  and  the  tortoise 
would  take  precedence  of  man  as  heirs  of  immortality. 

Or  again,  when  to  prove  original  sin  and  redemption,  we  are  told 
that  there  is  in  human  nature  a  principle  constantly  dragging  it  down 
to  a  lower  level,  which  can  only  be  counteracted  by  the  Christ-life; 
forgetting  that  long  before  Christ  appeared,  humanity  had  risen,  intel- 
lectually, from  the  fabrication  of  stone  hatchets  to  the  perfection  of 
tools  and  technical  skill  shown  in  the  pyramids  ;  and  morally,  from  the 
cannibal  feasts  of  the  cavern  of  Chaleux  to  the  ethics  of  a  Socrates  and 
a  Plato. 

But  objections  of  detail  are  irrelevant,  when  it  is  so  obvious  that 


SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER.  187 

the  whole  edifice  of  Professor  Drummond's  superstructure  rests  on  the 
assumption  that  the  spiritual  life  of  his  definition  is  a  proved  and 
undoubted  fact. 

This  again  rests  on  the  assumption  that  certain  texts,  quoted 
almost  entirely  from  the  writings  of  two  of  the  many  writers  whose 
works  constitute  the  Bible,  St.  Paul  and  St.  John,  are  inspired  revela- 
tions of  the  word  of  God,  and  therefore  absolutely  and  certainly  true. 

Take  this  away,  and  nothing  remains  of  the  peculiar  "  Spiritual 
World"  and  "  Christ-life,"  which  are  the  axioms  upon  which  he  builds 
up  every  one  of  his  supposed  analogies  to  natural  laws.  For  we  can 
hardly  call  proof  the  assertion  that  these  axioms  are  self-evident  to 
what  he  admits  to  be  an  almost  infinitesimally  small  portion  of  the 
whole  world,  and  even  of  the  Christian  world.  If  this  were  proof  it 
would  apply  equally  to  every  religion  and  every  superstition,  or  sect  of 
religion,  that  has  ever  existed  in  the  world. 

And  in  the  same  manner  the  analogies  would  apply  as  well,  or  in 
many  cases  better,  to  other  totally  different  forms  of  religious  belief. 

This  has  been  already  shown  generally  of  his  main  proposition, 
and  it  can  be  shown  in  detail  of  each  one  of  the  natural  laws  which 
form  the  subject  of  the  separate  chapters. 

For  instance,  those  of  degeneration  and  parasitism  fit  in  far  better 
with  what  maybe  called  the  Catholic  Christianity  of  the  great  majority, 
which  places  works  above  faith,  and  seeks  to  rise  to  a  higher  level  by  * 
strenuous  and  persistent  effort,  than  with  a  theory  which  makes  salva- 
tion depend  on  a  sudden  miraculous  act  of  Divine  grace,  fixed  by  pre- 
destination, or  "blowing  where  it  listeth." 

Or,  if  a  learned  Brahmin  or  Buddhist  read  the  chapter  on  morti- 
fication, he  would  exclaim:  "Why,  here  is  my  faith,  aud  the  essence 
of  my  religion."  Why  does  the  holy  fakir  sit  naked  in  the  rain  and 
wind,  with  his  hands  clasped  till  the  nails  grow  through  the  flesh,  or 
upraised  till  the  muscles  become  rigid,  if  it  be  not  to  "  die  as  much  as 
hie  can,"  detach  himself  from  the  evil  environment  of  the  natural  world, 
and  so  anticipate  the  time  when  his  little  rill  of  illusive  individual 
existence  may  be  absorbed  in  the  mighty  ocean  of  the  universal 
.Spirit? 

And  so  of  each  of  the  chapters.  Better  analogies  could  readily  be 
found  for  each  of  them  in  other  creeds ;  better,  because  they  would 
not  be  mutually  contradictory,  as  these  are  in  assigning  in  one  place 
persistent  effort,  and  in  another,  asceticism  and  passive  acquiescence 
in  predestined  grace,  as  the  conditions  of  attaining  spiritual  life. 

The  truth  is,  as  we  have  already  said,  that  Professor  Drummond, 
like  so  many  other  theological  writers,  begins  at  the  wrong  end. 

There  is  absolutely  no  foundation  for  his  superstructure,  except 
in  the  assured  belief: 

First,  in  revelation  as  taught  mankind  by  an  inspired  book ; 

Secondly,  in  the  particular  interpretation  given  to  it  by  the 
Calvinistic  creed. 

Let  him  begin  at  the  beginning,  and  lay  the  foundation  stone, 
•solidly  and  securely,  and  it  will  be  time  to  examine  whether  the 
edifice  he  has  built  upon  it  is  likely  to  stand,  or  is  destined  to  be  one 
of  the  many  enthusiastic  speculations,  which,  in  his  own  words,  speak- 
ing of  his  own  creed,  "rise  into  prominence  from  time  to  time,  become 
the  watchwords  of  insignificant  parties,  and  die  down  ultimately  for 
-want  of  lives  to  live  them." 


THE 

Humboldt  Library  of  Science 

is  the  only  publication  of  its  kind, —  the  only  one  containing  popular 
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works  of  acknowledged  excellence,  by  authors  of  the  first  rank 
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stand  forever  in  the  history  of  Mind.  Here,  in  truth,  is  "  strong 
meat  for  them  that  are  of  full  age." 

In  this  series  are  well  represented  the  writings  of 

DARWIN,  HUXLEY,  SPENCER,  TYNDALL,  PROCTOR,  CLIFFORD, 

CLODD,  BAGEHOT,  BAIN,  BATES,  WALLACE,  TRENCH, 

ROMANES,  GRANT  ALLEN,  BALFOUR  STEWART, 

GEIKIC,  HINTON,  SULLY,  FLAMMARION, 

,  ICTON,  WILLIAMS,  WILSON, 

and  other  leaders  of  thought  in  our  time.  As  well  might  one  be  a 
mummy  in  the  tomb  of  the  Pharaohs  as  pretend  to  live  the  life  of  the 
nineteenth  century  without  communion  of  thought  with  these  its 
Master  Minds. 

Science  has  in  our  time  invaded  every  domain  of  thought  and  research, 
throwing  new  light  upon  the  problems  of 

PHILOSOPHY,  THEOLOGY,  MAN'S    HISTORY, 
GOVERNMENT,  SOCIETY,   MEDICINE. 

In  short,  producing  a  revolution  in  the  intellectual  and  moral  world* 
No  educated  person,  whatever  his  calling,  can  afford  to  keep  himself  out, 
of  the  main  current  of  contemporary  scientific  research  and  exposition. 

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28   Lafayette   Place,  New  York. 


CATALOGUE 

OF 

TriE  riuMBOLBT  LIBRARY 

y     v 

OF 

POPULAR  SCIENCE. 


Containing  the  works  of  the  foremost  scientific  writers  of  the  age. —  The  Great 
Classics  of  Modern  Thought. — Strong  meat  for  them  that  are  of  full  age. 


Price,  Fifteen  Cents   per  number,  except  as  otherwise  noted  in  this  catalogue. 

No.   1. 

LIGHT    SCIENCE    FOR    LEISURE    HOURS.-A  Series  of  Familiar 
Essays    on    Scientific    Subjects,    Natural    Phenomena,   Ac.— By 

RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR,  B.A.,  Camb.,  F.E.A.S.,  author  of  "-The  Sun,"  "Other 
Worlds  than  Ours,"  "Saturn,"  &c. 


Strange  Discoveries  respecting 

the  Aurora. 
The  Earth  a  Magnet. 
Our  Chief  Timepiece  losing 

Time. 

Encke  the  Astronomer. 
Venus  on  the  Sun's  Face. 
Recent  Solar  Researches. 
Government  Aid  to  Science. 
American  Alms  for  British 

Science. 

The  Secret  of  the  North  Pole. 
Is  the  Gulf  Stream  a  Myth? 
Floods  in  Switzerland. 


CONTENTS. 

The  Tunnel  through  Mont  Cenis. 
The    Greatest    Sea -Wave    ever 

known. 

The  Usefulness  of  Earthquakes. 
The  Earthquake  in  Peru. 
A  Great  Tidal  Wave. 
Deep-Sea   Dredgings. 
Tornadoes. 
Vesuvius. 

The  Forcing  Power  of  Rain. 
A  Shower  of  Snow-Crystals. 
Long  Shots. 
Influence  of  Marriage  on  the 

Death-Rate. 


The  Topographical  Survey  of 

India. 
A  Ship  Attacked  by  a  Sword- 

fish. 

The  Safety-Lamp. 
The  Dust  we  have  to  Breathe. 
Photographic  Ghosts. 
The   Oxford    and    Cambridge 

Rowing  Styles. 
Betting  on  Horse-Races;    or, 

the  State  of  the  Odds. 
Squaring  the  Circle. 
The  New  Theory  of  Achilles' 

Shield. 


No.  2. 

THE   FORMS  OF  WATER   IN   CLOUDS  AND   RIVERS,  ICE  AND 

GLACIERS.— B7  JoHN  TYNDALL,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Natural  Philos- 
ophy in  the  Royal  Institution,  London. —  With  nineteen  illustrations  drawn 
under  the  direction  of  the  author. 


Clouds.  Rains,  and  Rivers. 
The  Waves  of  Light. 
Oceanic  Distillation. 
Tropical  Rains. 
Architecture  of  Snow. 
Architecture  of  Lake  Ice. 
Ice  Pinnacles,  Towers,  and 
Chasms. 


CONTENTS. 

The  Motion  of  Glaciers. 
Likeness  of  Glacier  Motion  to 

River  Motion. 
Changes   of  Volume  of  Water 

by  Heat  and  Cold. 
The   Molecular  Mechanism  of 

Water-congelation. 
Sea  Ice  and  Icebergs. 


Ancient  Glaciers  of  Switzer- 
land. 

Ancient  Glaciers  of  England,. 
Scotland. Wales, and  Ireland. 

The  Glacial  Epoch. 

Glacier  Theories. 

The  Blue  Veins  of  Glaciers. 

Crevasses. 


No.  3. 


PHYSICS    AND    POLITICS:    An   Application    of  the    Principles  of 
Natural  Selection  and  Heredity  to  Political  Society  .-By  WALTER 

BAGEHOT,  author  of  "The  English  Constitution." 


Chapter     I.— The  Preliminary  Age. 
Chapter    II.— The  Use  of  Conflict. 
Chapter  III. — Nation-making. 
Chapter  IV.— Nation-making. 


CONTENTS. 

I    Chapter    V.— The  Age  of  Discussion. 
I    Chapter  VI.— Verifiable  Progress  Politically  Con- 
sidered. 


THE  HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


No.  4. 

EVIDENCE    AS    TO    MAN'S 

HUXLEY,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.—  With 


PLACE    JN    NATURE.-By  THOMAS   H. 
numerous   illustrations. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I.— The  Natural  History  of  the  Manlike 
Apes. 


Chapter   II.— The  Relations  of  Man  to  the  Lower 

Animals. 
Chapter  III.— Some  Fossil  Remains  of  Man. 


EDUCATION:    INTELLECTUAL,   MORAL,   AND 

HERBERT  SPENCER. 


PHYSICAL.-By 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter   I.— What  Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth  ?    I 
Chapter  II.— Intellectual  Education. 


Chapter  III.— Moral   Education. 
Chapter  IV.— Physical   Education. 


No.  6. 

TOWN    GEOLOGY.— By  the  Rev.  CHARLES  KINGSLEY,  F.L.S..  F.G.S.,  Canon  of 

Chester. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I.— The  Soil  of  the  Field. 
Chapter   II.— The  Pebbles  in  the  Street. 
Chapter  III.— The  Stones  in  the  Wall. 


Chapter  IV.— The  Coal  in  the  Fire. 
Chapter    V.— The  Lime  in  the  Mortar. 
Chapter  VI.— The  Slates  on  the  Roof. 


No.  7. 

THE  CONSERVATION  OF  ENERGY.- By  BALPOUR  STEWART,  LL.D., 
F.K.S.,  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  at  the  Owens  College,  Manchester,  Eng. 
With  an  Appendix — "The  Correlation  of  Nervous  and  Mental  Forces,"  by  Prof. 
ALEXANDER  BAIN. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I.— What  is  Energy? 

Chapter  II.— Mechanical  Energy  and  its  Change 

into  Heat. 
Chapter  III.— The  Forces  and  Energies  of  Nature : 

the  Law  of  Conservation. 
Chapter  IV.— Transmutations  of  Energy. 


Chapter   V.— Historical  Sketch:  the  Dissipation 

of  Energy. 
Chapter  VI.— The  Position  of  Life. 

APPENDIX.— The  Correlation  of   Nervous  and 
Mental  Forces. 


No.  8. 

THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES  BROUGHT  BACK  TO  ITS 
TRUE  PRINCIPLES.— By  C.  MARCEL,  Kiit.  Leg.  Hon.,  author  of  "Language 
as  a  Means  of  Mental  Culture,"  &c. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I. —  Subdivision  and  Order  of  Study. 
Chapter   II.— The  Art  of  Reading. 
Chapter  III.—  The  Art  of  Hearing. 
Chapter  IV.— The  Art  Speaking. 


Chapter  V.— The  Art  of  Writing. 
Chapter  VI.— On  Mental  Culture. 
Chapter  VII.— On  Routine. 


No.  9. 

THE    DATA 


OF    ETHICS.— By  HERBERT  SPENCER. 


CONT 
Chapter        1.  —  Conduct  in  General. 
Chapter      II.—  The  Evolution  of  Conduct. 
Chapter     III.  —  Good  and  Bad  Conduct. 
Chapter     IV.—  Ways  of  Judging  Conduct. 
Chapter       V.—  The  Physical  View. 
Chapter     VI.—  The  Biological  View. 
Chapter  VII.—  The  Psychological  View. 
Chapter  VIII.—  The  Sociological  View. 

E  N  T  S. 

Chapter     IX.—  Criticisms  and  Explanations. 
Chapter       X.—  The  Relativity  of  Pains  and  Pleas- 
Chapter     XI.—  Egoism  versus  Altruism.      [ures. 
Chapter    XII.  —  Altruism  versus  Egoism. 
Chapter  XIII.—  Trial  and  Compromise. 
Chapter  XIV.—  Conciliation. 
Chapter    XV.—  Absolute  Ethics  and  Relative  Eth 
Chapter  XVI.—  The  Scope  of  Ethics.               lies. 

Published    monthly.— $1.50  per  annum.  -  Single   numbers.  15  cents. 


OF    POPULAR     SCIENCE. 


No.  10. 

THE   THEORY  OF  SOUND   IN    ITS    RELATION  TO   MUSIC.-By 

Professor  PIETRO  BLASERNA,  of  the  Royal  University  of  Rome.— With  numerous 
woodcuts. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I. —  Periodic  Movements:  Vibration. — 
Sonorous  Vibration.— Vibration  of  a  Bell.— Vibra- 
tion of  a  Tuning-fork. — Vibration  of  a  String. — Of 
Plates  and  Membranes. —  Vibration  of  Air  in  a 
Sounding  -  pipe.  —  Meth'od  of  the  Monometric 
Flame. — Concl  usion. 

Chapter  II. — Transmission  of  Sound. — Propaga- 
tion in  Air.— In  Water  and  Other  Bodies.— Ve- 
locity of  Sound  in  Air.-  In  Water  and  Other  Bodies. 
Reflection  of  Sound. —  Echo. 

Chapter  III. — Charactei-istics  of  Sound,  and  Dif- 
ference "between  Musical  Sound  and  Noise. — Loud- 
ness  of  Sound,  and  the  Various  Causes  on  which 
it  depends. —  Principle  of  the  Superposition  of 
Sounds. —  Soundii is;- boards  and  Resonators. 

Chapter  IV. —  Measure  of  the  Number  of  Vibra- 
tions.— Pitch  of  Sounds :  Limit  of  Audible  Sounds, 
of  Musical  Sounds,  and  of  the  Human  Voice. — 
The  "Normal  Pitch."— Laws  of  the  Vibrations  of 
a.  String,  and  of  Harmonics. 

Chapter  V. —  Musical  Sounds. —  Law  of  Simple 
Ratio. —  Unison:  interference. —  Beats:  their  ex- 
planation.—  Resultant  Notes. — Octaves,  and  other 
Harmonics. — Consonant  Chords  and  their  limits. 
—  The  Major  fifth,  fourth,  sixth,  and  third:  the 
Minor  third  and  sixth.— The  Seventh  Harmonic. 


Chapter  VI.— Helmholtz's  Double  Siren.— Appli- 
cation of  the  Law  of  Simple  Ratio  to  three  or 
more  notes.— Perfect  Major  and  Minor  Chords: 
their  nature. —  Their  inversion. 

Chapter  VII.— Discords.— The  Nature  of  Music 
and  Musical  Scales.  —  Ancient  Music.  — Greek 
Scale. — Scale  of  Pythagoras. — Its  decay. — Ambro- 
sian  and  Gregorian  Chants. —  Polyphonic  Music: 
Harmony  —The  Protestant  Reformation.  — Pales- 
trina.— Change  of  the  Musical  Scale.— The  Tonic 
or  Fundamental  Chord.— The  Major  Scale.— Mu- 
sical Intervals.— The  Minor  Scale.— Key  and  Trans- 
position.—  Sharps  and  Flats. —  The  Temperate 
Scale:  its  inaccuracy.— The  Desirability  of  aban- 
doning it. 

Chapter  VIII.— Quality  or  timbre  of  Musical 
Sounds. —  Forms  assumed  by  the  Vibrations. — 
Laws  of  Harmonics. —  Quality  or  timbre  of  Strings 
and  of  Instruments. —  General  Laws  of  Chords.-^ 
Noises  accompanying  Musical  Sounds. —  Quality 
or  timbre  of  Vocal  Musical  Sounds. 

Chapter  IX. —  Difference  between  Science  and 
Art. —  Italian  and  German  Music. —  Separation  of 
the  two  Schools. — Influence  of  Paris. — Conclusion. 


Nos.  11  and  12.  Double  number,  3O  cents. 

THE  NATURALIST  ON  THE  RIVER  AMAZONS.-A  Record  of 
Adventures,  Habits  of  Animals,  Sketches  of  Brazilian  and 
Indian  Life,  and  Aspects  of  Nature  under  the  Equator,  during 
eleven  years  of  travel.—  BJ  HENRY  WALTER  BATES,  F.L.S.,  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  England. 


CONTENTS. 


(In 

Chapter  I. —  Arrival  at  Para— Aspect  of  the 
country— First  walk  in  the  suburbs  of  Para— Birds, 
lizards,  and  insects — Leaf-carrying  ant — Sketch  of 
the  climate. history, and  present  condition  of  Para. 

Chapter  II. — The  swampy  forest  of  Para — A  Por- 
tuguese landed  proprietor  —  Life  of  a  Naturalist 
under  the  Equator — The  dryer  virgin  forests — Re- 
tired creeks — Aborigines. 

Chapter  III.— The  Tocantins  River  and  Cameta 
—Sketch  of  the  River— Grove  of  fan-leaVed  palms 
—Native  life  on  the  Tocantins. 

Chapter  V.—  Caripi  and  the  Bay  of  Marajo— 
Negro  observance  of  Christmas— A  German  family 
—  Bats  — Ant-eaters  —  Humming-birds  —  Domestic 
life  of  the  inhabitants  — Hunting  excursion  with 
Indians— White  ants. 

Chapter  VI.— The  Lower  Amazons  —  Modes  of 
traveling  on  the  Amazons — Historical  sketch  of  the 
early  explorations  of  the  river — First  sight  of  the 
great  river — Flat-topped  mountains. 

Chapter  VII.— Ville  Nova,  its  inhabitants,  forest, 
and  animals — A  rustic  festival — River  Madeira — 
Mura  Indians — Yellow  Fever. 

Chapter  VIII. — Santarem — Manners  and  customs 


part.) 

of  the  inhabitants — Sketches  of  Natural  History — 
palms, wildfruit-trees, mining-wasps,  mason-wasps, 
bees, and  sloths. 

Chapter  IX. — Voyage  up  the  Tapajps — Modes  of 
obtaining  fish — Wnite  Cebus,and  habits  and  dispo- 
sitions of  Cebi  monkeys — Adventure  with  anaconda 

—  Smoke-dried  monkey  —  Boa-constrictor  —  Hya- 
cinthine  macaw — Descent  of  river  to  Santarem. 

Chapter  X. — The  Upper  Amazons — Desolate  ap- 
pearance of  river  in  the  flood  season — Mental  con- 
dition of  Indians  —  Floating  pumice-stones  from 
the  Andes— Falling  banks— Ega  and  its  inhabitants 
— The  four  seasons  of  the  Upper  Amazons. 

Chapter  XI. — Excursions  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Ega — Character  and  customs  of  the  Passe  Indians 
—Hunting  rambles  with  natives  in  the  forest. 

Chapter  XII. —  Animals  of  the  neighborhood  of 
Ega-Scarlet-faced  monkeys- Owl- faced  night-apes 

—  Marmosets —  Bats —  Birds —  Insects —  Pendulous 
cocoons — Foraging  ants — Blind  ants. 

Chapter  XIII.  — Excursions  beyond  Ega — Steam- 
boat traveling  on  the  Amazons— Various  tribes  of 
Indians — Descent  to  Para — Great  changes  at  Para 
—Departure  for  England. 


*%  This  is  one  of  the  most  charming  books  of  travel  ever  written,  and  is  both  interesting  and  in- 
structive. It  is  a  graphic  description  of  "  a  country  of  perpetual  summer, — where  trees  yield  flower  and 
fruit  all  the  year  round," — "a  region  where  the  animals  and  plants  have  been  fashioned  in  Nature's 
choicest  moulds." 


THE   HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


No.  13. 

MIND    AND    BODY:  The  Theories  of  their  Relation.— By  ALEXANDER 

BAIN,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Logic  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen. 


CONTENTS. 
Chapter     I.— Question  Stated. 
Chapter   II.— Connection  of  Mind  and  Body. 
Chapter  III.— The  Connection  Viewed  as  Corre 
spondence,  or  Concomitant  Variation. 


Chapter  IV.— General  Laws  of  Alliance  of  Mind 

and  Body.—  The  Feelings  and  the  Will. 
Chapter     V.—  The  Intellect. 
Chapter   VI.— How  are  Mind  and  Body  united? 
Chapter  VII.— History  of  the  Theories  of  the  Soul. 


No.  14. 

THE  WONDERS  OF  THE  HEAVENS.-By  CAMILLE  FLAMMARIOX.- 
Translated  from  the  French  by  Mrs.  NORMAN  LOCKYER. —  With  thirty-two 
Actinoglyph  Illustrations. 

CONTENTS. 


BOOK    FIRST. 
Chapter    I.— Night. 
Chapter  II.— The  Heavens. 

Chapter  IH.— Infinite  Space.  [verse. 

Chapter  IV. —  General  Arrangement  of  the  Uni- 
Chapter    V.— Clustei-s  and  Nebulae. 
Chapter  VI.— The  Milky  Way. 

BOOK   SECOND. 

Chapter     I.— The  Sidereal  World. 

Chapter   II.— The  Northern  Constellations. 

Chapter  III.— The  Zodiac. 

Chapter  IV. —  Southern  Constellations. 

Chapter  V.— The  Number  of  the  Stars.— Their 
Distances. 

Chapter  VI.— Variable  Stars.— Temporary  Stars. 
Stars  suddenly  visible  or  invisible. 

Chapter  VII.— Distant  Universes.— Double,  Mul- 
tiple, and  Colored  Suns.  . 

BOOK   THIRD. 

Chapter     I.— The  Planetary  System. 
Chapter   II.— The  Sun. 


Chapter    III.— The  Sun  (continued). 

Chapter     IV. —  Mercury. 

Chapter       V.— Venus/ 

Chapter      VI.— Mars. 

Chapter    VII.— Jupiter. 

Chapter.  VIII.—  Saturn. 

Chapter      IX. — Uranus. 

Chapter       X.— Neptune. 

Chapter      XI. —  Comets. 

Chapter    XII.— Comets  (continued). 

BOOK   FOURTH. 

Chapter     I.— The  Terrestrial  Globe. 
Chapter    II.— Proofs  that  the  Earth  is  round. — 

That  it  turns  on  an  axis,  and  revolves  round 

the  Sun. 

Chapter  III.— The  Moon. 
Chapter  IV.— The  Moon  (continued). 
Chapter    V.— Eclipses. 

BOOK    FIFTH. 

Chapter   I.— The  Plurality  of  Inhabited  Worlds. 
Chapter  II.— The  Contemplation  of  the  Heavens. 


No.  15. 

LONGEVITY:    THE    MEANS    OF    PROLONGING    LIFE    AFTER 
MIDDLE     AGE.— By  JOHN   GARDNER,  M.D. 


CONTENTS. 


What  is  the  Natural  Duration  of  Human  Life  ? 

Is  the  Duration  of  Life  in  any  degree  within  em- 
power ? 

Some  General    Considerations    respecting   Ad- 
vanced Age. 

Causes  of  Neglect  of  Health. 

Is  Longevity  Desirable  ? 

Physiology  of  Advanced  Age. 

Heredity. 

The  Means  of  Ameliorating  and  Retarding  the 
Effects  of  Age.  t 

Recuperative  Power. —  What  is  Life? 

Water :  its  bearing  on  Health  and  Disease. 

Mineral  Waters. 

Stimulants  — Spirituous  and  Malt  Liquors  and 
Wine. 

Climate,  its  Effects  on  Longevity. 

Disregarded  Deviations  from  Health  in  Aged 
Persons.— (a).  Faulty  Nutrition— General  At- 
tenuation.—^). Local  Failure  of  Nutrition.— 
(c).  Obesity. 

Pain  —  the  Use  and  Misuse  of  Narcotics. —  (a). 
Dolor-Senilis.— (&).  Narcotics.— (c).  Sarsapa- 
rilla  and  other  Remedial  Agents. 

Gout — New  Remedies  for. 

Rheumatism. —  Lumbago. 

Limit  to  the  Use  of  Narcotics. 

The  Stomach  and  Digestion. 

The  Liver. 


The  Kidneys  and  Urine.— Simple  Overflow  —Al- 
buminous Urine. — Bright's  Disease. —  Muddy 
Ui-ine,  Gravel,  Stone.— Irritable  Bladder.— 
Diabetes. 

The  Lower  Bowels. 

The  Throat. — Air-passages. —  Lungs. —  Bronchitis. 

The  Heart. 

The  Brain— Mind,  Motive  Power,  Sleep,  Paralysis. 

Established  Facts  respecting  Longevity. 

Diseases  Fatal  after  Sixty. 

Summary. —  An  Expei-iment  Proposed. 

Appendix. —  Causes  of  Premature  Death. 

Notes  on  some  Collateral  Topics. —  (a).  Longevity 
of  the  Patriarchs  and  in  Ancient  Times. —  (&). 
Flourens  on  Longevity. —  (c).  Popular  Errors 
respecting  Longevity. —  (d).  Waste  of  Human- 
Life. —  (e).  Moral  and  Religious  Aspects  of 
Longevity. — (/).  Importance  of  Early  Treat- 
ment of  Disorders.— (o).  The  Bones  of  Old 
People  Brittle.— (ft).  Condition  of  very  Old 
People.—  (i).  One  Hundred  and  Five  Years  the 
Extreme  Limit  of  Human  Life.—  (j).  A  Case 
of  Recuperation. —  (k).  On  the  Water  used  in 
Country  Towns.—  (I).  Pure  Aerated  Water.— 
—  (m).  Anticipations. —  (n.)  Adulteration  of 
Food,  «fec.,  its  Effects  on  Human  Life.— (o). 
Cases  of  Prolonged  Life. —  (p).  Appliances 
Useful  to  Aged  Persons  for  Immediate  Relief 
of  Suffering. 


Published   monthly.—  $1.5O  per  annum.     Single  numbers,  15  cents. 


OF    POPULAR     SCIENCE. 


No.   16. 


ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  SPECIES;  or, The  Causes  of  the  Phenomena 
of  Organic  Nature.— A  Course  of  Six  Lectures.— By  THOMAS  H.  HUXLEY, 
F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  Jermyn  Street  School  of 
Mines,  London. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I.  — The  Present  Condition  of  Organic 
Nature.  [ture. 

Chapter    II.— The  Past  Condition  of  Organic  Na- 

Chapter  III.— The  Method  by  which  the  Causes  of 
the  Present  and  Past  Conditions  of  Organic 
Nature  are  to  be  discovered. — The  Origination 
of  Living  Beings. 

Chapter  IV.— The  Perpetuation  of  Living  Beings. 
Hereditary  Transmission  and  Variation. 


Chapter  V.— The  Conditions  of  Existence  as  af- 
fecting the  Perpetuation  of  Living  Beings. 

Chapter  VI.— A  Critical  Examination  of  the  Po- 
sition of  Mr.  Darwin's  work  on  "The  Origin 
of  Species."  in  relation  to  the  Complete  The- 
ory of  the  Causes  of  the  Phenomena  of  Organic 
Nature. 

APPENDIX. — Criticisms  on  Darwin's  "Origin  of 
Species." 


No.  17. 

PROGRESS:  ITS  LAW  AND  CAUSE.- With  other  Disquisitions,  viz., 
The  Physiology  of  Laughter. —  Origin  and  Function  of  Music. —  The  Social 
Organism.—  Use  and  Beauty. —  The  Use  of  Anthropomorphism. —  By  HERBERT 
SPENCER. 


No.  18. 

LESSONS    IN    ELECTRICITY.    To  which  is  added  an  Elementary 

Lecture  on  Magnetism.— By  JoHN  TYNDALL,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain.— With 
Sixty  Illustrations. 

CONTENTS. 


Introduction. 

Historic  Notes. 

The  Art  of  Experiment. 

Electric  Attractions. 

Discovery  of  Conduction  and  Insulation. 

The  Electroscope. 

Electrics  and  Non-Electrics. 

Electric  Repulsions. 

Fundamental  Law  of  Electric  Action. 

Double  or  "Polar"  Character  of   the   Electric 

Force. 

What  is  Electricity? 
Electric  Induction." 
The  Electrophorus. 
Action  of  Points  and  Flames. 


The   Electrical  Machine. 
The  Leyden  Jar. 
Franklin's  Cascade  Battery. 
Leyden  Jars  of  the  Simplest  Form. 
Ignition   by  the  Electric  Spark. 
Duration   of  the  Electric  Spark. 
Electric   Light  in  Vacuo. 
Lichtenberg's  Figures. 
Surface   Compared  with  Mass. 
Physiological  Effects  of  the  Electrical  Discharge. 
Atmospheric   Electricity. 
The   Returning  Stroke. 
The  Leyden   Battery. 

APPENDIX.  — An  Elementary  Lecture  on  Mag- 
netism. 


No.  19. 

FAMILIAR    ESSAYS    ON    SCIENTIFIC    SUBJECTS,  viz.,  Oxygen  in 

the  Sun. —  Sun-spot,  Storm,  and  Famine.— New  Ways  of  Measuring  the  Sun's 
Distance.  — Drifting  Light-waves. —  The  New  Star  which  faded  into  Star-mist. — 
Star-grouping,  Star-drift,  and  Star-mist. — By  RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR. 


No.  20. 

THE  ROMANCE  OF  ASTRONOMY.-By  R.  KALLEY  MILLER,  M.A.,  Pel- 
low  and  Assistant  Tutor  of  St.  Peter's  College,  Cambridge,  England.  — With  an 
Appendix  by  RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR. 


The  Planets. 
Astrology. 
The  Moon. 
The  Sun. 


CONTENTS. 

The  Comets. 

Laplace's  Nebular  Hypothesis. 

The  Stars. 

The  Nebulae. 


APPENDIX. 

The  Past  History  of  our  Moon. 
Ancient  Babylonian  Astrogony. 


THE  HTTMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


No.  21. 

ON  THE  PHYSICAL  BASIS  OF  LIFE.-With  Other  Essays,  viz., 
The  Scientific  Aspects  of  Positivism.— A  Piece  of  Chalk.— Geo- 
logical Contemporaneity.— A  Liberal  Education.— By  THOMAS  H. 

HUXLEY,  F.E.S.,  F.L.S. 

No.  22. 

SEEING  AND  THINKING.— BJ  WILLIAM  KINGDON  CLIFFORD,  F.R.S.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Applied  Mathematics  and  Mechanics  in  University  College,  London, 
and  sometime  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 


CONTENTS. 


The  Eye  and  the  Brain. 
The  Eye  and  Seeing. 


The  Brain  and  Thinking. 
Of  Boundaries   in   General. 


No.  23. 

SCIENTIFIC  SOPHISMS.  A  Review  of  Current  Theories  con- 
cerning Atoms,  Apes,  and  Men.— By  SAMUEL  WAINWRIGHT,  D.D. 
author  of  ''Christian  Certainty,"  "The  Modern  Avernus,"  &c. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  VIII.— The  Three  Beginnings. 
Chapter     IX.— The  Three  Barriers. 
Chapter       X. — Atoms. 
Chapter     XI.— Apes. 
Chapter    XII.— Men. 
Chapter  XIII.— Anirai  Mundi. 


Chapter      I.— The  Right  of  Search. 

Chapter  II.—  Evolution: 

Chapter  III.— "A  Puerile  Hypothesis." 

Chapter  IV.— "  Scientific  Levity." 

Chapter     V.— A  House  of  Cards. 

Chapter  VI.— Sophisms. 

Chapter  VII.— Protoplasm. 

No.  24. 

POPULAR  SCIENTIFIC  LECTURES,  viz.,  On  the  Relation  of  Optics 
to  Painting.— On  the  Origin  of  the  Planetary  System.— On 
Thought  in  Medicine.— On  Academic  Freedom  in  German  Uni- 
versities.— By  H.  HELMHOLTZ,  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  University  oi 
Berlin. 

No.  25. 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  NATIONS.- In  two  parts- On  Early  Civiliza- 
tions.—On  Ethnic  Affinities,  &C.~ By  GEORGE  RAWLINSON,  M.A., 
Camden  Professor  of  Ancient  History,  Oxford. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I.— EARLY  CIVILIZATIONS. 
Chapter         I. —  Introduction. 
Chapter       II.— On  the  Antiquity  of  Civilization 

in   Egypt. 
Chapter     HI.— On  the  Antiquity  of  Civilization 

at  Babylon. 
Chapter     IV.— On    the    Date   and   Character  of 

Phoenician   Civilization. 

Chapter       V.—  On  the  Civilizations  of  Asia  Minor 

— Phrygia,  Lydia,  Lycia,  Troas. 

Chapter     VI.— On  the  Civilizations  of  Central  Asia 

—  Assyria,  Media.  Persia,  India. 

Chapter   VII  — On  the  Civilization  of  the  Etruscans 

Chapter  VIII.— On  the  Civilization  of  the  British 

Celts. 
Chapter      IX.— Results  of  the  Inquiry. 


PART  II.— ETHNIC  AFFINITIES  IN  THE: 
ANCIENT  WORLD. 

Chapter       I.— The  Chief  Japhetic  Races. 
Chapter     II.—  Subdivisions  of  the  Japhetic  Races, 

Gomer  and  Javan. 

Chapter  III.— The  Chief  Hamitic  Races. 
Chapter    IV.— Subdivisions  of  Cush. 
Chapter     V?— Subdivisions  of  Mizraim  and 

Canaan. 

Chapter   VI.— The  Semitic  Races. 
Chapter  VII.— On  the  Subdivisions  of  the  Semitic 

Races. 


Published   montlily. —  $1.5O  per  annum. —  Single  numbers,  15  cents. 


OF    POPULAR    SCIENCE. 


No.  2C. 

THE    EVOLUTIONIST    AT    LARGE. -By  GRANT  ALLEN. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter        I.  —  Microscopic  Brains. 
Chapter       II.  —  A  Wayside   Berry. 
Chapter     III.—  In   Summer   Fields. 
Chapter     IV.—  A  Sprig  of  Water  Crowfoot. 
Chapter       V.—  Slugs  and   Snails. 
Chapter     VI.—  A  Study  of  Bones. 
Chapter    VII.—  Blue   Mud. 
Chapter  VIII.—  Cuckoo-pint. 
Chapter     IX.  —  Berries  and  BeiTies. 
Chapter       X.—  Distant   Relations. 
Chapter     XI.  —  Among  the  Heather. 

Chapter       XII.—  Speckled  Trout. 
Chapter     XIII.  —  Dodder  and  Broomrape. 
Chapter     XIV.—  Dog's  Mercury  and  Plantain. 
Chapter       XV.—  Butterfly  Psychology. 
Chapter     XVI.—  Butterfly  Esthetics. 
Chapter    XVII.—  The  Origin  of  Walnuts. 
Chapter  XVIII.—  A  Pretty  Land-shell. 
Chapter     XIX.—  Dogs  and   Masters. 
Chapter       XX.—  Blackcock. 
Chapter     XXI.—  Bindweed. 
Chapter    XXII.—  On  Cornish  Cliffs. 

No.  27. 


THE     HISTORY    OF    LANDHOLDING 

FISHER,   F.R.H.S. 


IN      ENGLAND.-By  JOSEPH 


I. — The   Aborigines. 
II.— The    Romans. 
III. —  The   Scandinavians. 


CONTENTS. 

IV.— The  Normans. 
V.— The  Plantagenets. 
VI.— The  Tudors. 


VII.— The  Stuarts. 
VIII.— The  House  of 


Hanover. 


No.  28. 

FASHION    IN    DEFORMITY,   AS    ILLUSTRATED    IN    THE    CUS- 
TOMS  OF  BARBAROUS  AND  CIVILIZED   RACES.-By  WILLIAM 

HENRY  FLOWER,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.K.C.S.,  P.Z.S.,  &c.,  Hunterian  Professor  of 
Comparative  Anatomy,  and  Conservator  of  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  England. —  With  illustrations. 

TO   WHICH    IS    ADDED 

MANNERS    AND     FASHION.- By  HERBERT  SPENCER. 


No.  29. 

FACTS  AND  FICTIONS  OF  ZOOLOGY.- By  ANDREW  WILSON,  Ph.D., 
F.R.P.S.E.,  &e.,  Lecturer  on  Zoology  and  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Medical  School;  Lecturer  on  Physiology,  Watt  Institution  and  School 
of  Arts,  Edinburgh,  &c. — With  numerous  illustrations. 


Zoological  Myths. 

The   Sea-serpents  of  Science. 

Some  Animal  Architects. 


CONTENTS. 

Parasites  and  their  Development. 
What  I  Saw  in  an  Ant's  Nest. 


^No.  30.  and  No.  31. 

ON    THE    STUDY    OF    WORDS- 

Archbishop  of   Dublin. 


RICHARD  CHENEVIX  TRENCH,  D.D., 


Lecture     I.— Introductory  Lecture. 
Lecture   II.— On  the   Poetry  in  Words. 
Lecture  III.—  On  the   Morality  in   Words. 
Lecture  IV.— On  the   History  in  Words. 


CONTENTS. 

Lecture     V.— On  the  Rise  of  New  Words. 
Lecture    VI.— On  the  Distinction  of  Words; 
Lecture  VII.— The  Schoolmaster's  Use  of  Words. 


No.  32. 

HEREDITARY    TRAITS,    AND    OTHER     ESSAYS.-By  RICHARD  A, 

PROCTOR,  B.A.,  F.R.A.S.,  author  of  "The  Sun,"  "Other  Worlds  than  Ours,71 
"Saturn,"  &c. 


I.— Hereditary  Traits. 
II. —  Artificial   Somnambulism. 


CONTENTS. 

I       III.— Bodily  Illness  as  a  Mental  Stimulant. 
IV. —  Dual  Consciousness. 


THE   HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York, 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


No.  33. 

VIGNETTES     FROM     NATURE.— By  GRANT  ALLEN,  author  of  "The  Evolu- 
tionist  at  Large." 


I.— Fallow  Deer. 
II. —  Sedge  and  Woodbrush. 
III.— Red"  Campion   and   White. 
IV. —  Butterfly-Hunting   Begins. 
V. —  Red   Campion  Again. 
VI.— The  Hedgehog's  Hole. 
VII.- On  Musbury   Castle. 
VIII.— A  Big  Fossil  Bone. 
IX. — Veronica. 
X.— Guelder  Rose. 
XI.—  The  Heron's  Haunt. 


CONTENTS. 


XII. -A   Bed  of  Nettles. 
XIII.— Loosestrife   and  Pimpernel. 
XIV.- The   Carp  Pond. 

XV.— A  Welsh   Roadside. 
XVI.— Seaside  Weeds. 
XVII.  — A  Mountain   Tarn. 
XVIII.— Wild   Thyme. 

XIX.— The  Donkey's  Ancestors. 
XX.— Beside  the  "Cromlech. 
XXI.r-The  Fall  of  the  Leaf. 
XXII.— The  Fall  of  the  Year. 


No.  34. 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  STYLE.- By  HERBERT  SPENCER,  author  of  "First 
Principles  of  Philosophy/'  "Social  Statics,"  "Elements  of  Psychology,"  "Ele- 
ments of  Biology,"  "Education,"  &c. 

CONTENTS. 

PART  I. —  Causes  of  Force  in  Language  -which  depend  upon  Economy  of  the  Mental 

Energies. 

I.— The    Principle    of    Economy    applied    to        I        III.— Arrangement  of  Minor  Images  in  Build- 
Words,  ing  up  a  Thought. 

II.— The  Effect  of  Figurative  Language  Ex-  IV.— The     Superiority    of     Poetry    to    Prose 

plained.  |  Explained. 

PAUT  II. —  Caftses  of  Force  in  Language   which  depend  upon  Economy  of  the  Mental 

Sensibilities. 

TO   WHICH    IS    ADDED 

THE  MOTHER  TONGUE.—  By  ALEXANDER  BAIN,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Logic 
in  the  University  of  Aberdeen. 


Conditions    of   Language  Acquisition  Generally.     I        The  Age  for  Commencing  Grammar. 
The   Mother  Tongue.  The  Higher  Composition. 


CONTENTS, 
erallv.     I        The 
The 
Teaching  Grammar.  |        English  "Literature. 

No.  35. 

ORIENTAL     RELIGIONS.— B7  JoHN  CAIRD,  S.T.D.,  President  of  the  Uuiver, 
sity  of  Glasgow,  and  other  authors. 


CONTENTS. 


Religions  of  India.  < 


—  Brahmanism. 


Buddhism. 


By  JOHN  CAIRD,  S.T.D. 


Religion  of  China. —  Confucianism. 

By  Rev.  GEORGE  MATHESO>T. 

Religion  of   Persia. — Zoroaster  and    the  Zend 

Avesta.  By  Rev.  JOHN  MILNE,  M.A. 


No.  36. 

LECTURES    ON    EVOLUTION.-With  an  Appendix   on  The   Study 
of    Biology. — By  THOMAS  H.  HUXLEY. 


CONTENTS. 


I.— THREE  LECTURES  ON  EVOLUTION. 
Lecture   I.— The    Three    Hypotheses    respecting 

the  History  of  Nattire. 
Lecture  II.— The  Hypothesis  of  Evolution.— The 

Neuti-al  and  the  Favorable  Evidence. 


Lecture  III. —  The   Demonstrative    Evidence    of 
Evolution. 


II.— A  LECTURE  ON  THE  STUDY  OF  BIOLOGY. 


No.  37. 

SIX     LECTURES    ON     LIGHT.- By  Prof.  JOHN  TYNDALL,  F.K.S. 

CONTENTS. 


Lecture     I. — Introductory. 
Lecture   II. — Origin  of  Physical  Theories. 
Lectm-e  III.— Relation  of  Theories  to  Experience. 
Lecture  IV. — Chromatic  Phenomena  produced  by 
Crystals  on  Polarized  Light. 


Lecture  V. —  Range  of  Vision  incommensurate- 
with  Range  of  Radiation. 

Lecture  VI. — Principles  of  Spectrum  Analysis. 
—  Solar  Chemistry.— Summary 
and  Conclusions. 


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OF    POPULAR    SCIENCE. 


No.  38  and  No.  39. 

GEOLOGICAL  SKETCHES  AT  HOME  AND  ABROAD.- By  ARCH- 
IBALD GEIKIE,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Director-General  of  the  Geological  Surveys  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland. — In  Two  Parts,  each  complete  in  itself. 

CONTENTS. 


PART  I.— No.  38. 
I.— My  First  Geological  Excursion. 
II.—  "The  Old  Man  of  Hoy." 
III.— The  Baron's   Stone  of  Killochan. 
IV.— The  Colliers  of  Carrick. 
V. — Among  the  Volcanoes  of  Central  France. 
VI.—  The  Old  Glaciers  of  Noi-way  and  Scotland. 
VII.— Rock- Weathering  Measured  by  the  Decay 
of  Tombstones. 


PART  II.— No.  39. 

I. — A  Fragment  of  Primeval  Europe. 
II.— In  Wyoming. 

III. —  The  Geysers  of  the  Yellowstone. 
IV.— The  Lava  Fields  of  Northwestern  Europe. 
V.-i-The  Scottish  School  of  Geology. 
VI— Geographical   Evolution. 
VII. — The  Geological  Influences  which  have  affect- 
ed the  Course  of  British  History. 


No.  40. 

THE    SCIENTIFIC    EVIDENCE    OF    ORGANIC    EVOLUTION.- By 

GEORGE  J.  ROMANES,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Zoological  Secretary  of  the  Lhmean 
Society,  London. 

CONTENTS. 

I. —  Introduction.  V. — The  Argument  from  Geographical  Distribn- 

VI. — The  Argument  from  Embryology.         [tion. 


II. —  The  Argument  from  Classification. 
III. — The  Argument  from  Morphology  o 
IV. —  The  Argument  from  Geologj 


ure. 

ruct-         VII.— Arguments   drawn    from  Certain  General 
Considerations. 

TO    WHICH    IS    ADDED 

THE    DOCTRINE    OF    EVOLUTION. - 


PALEONTOLOGY    AND 

Prof.  THOMAS  H.  HUXLEY. 

NATURAL  SELECTION   AND   NATURAL  THEOLOGY.- By  EUSTACE 

B.  PONDER,  P.P. 

No.  41. 

CURRENT  DISCUSSIONS  IN  SCIENCE.-By  W.  MATTIEU  WILLIAMS, 
F.R.A.S.,  F.C.S.,  author  of  "The  Fuel  of  the  Sun,"  "Through  Norway  with  a 
Knapsack,"  "A  Simple  Treatise  on  Heat,"  &c. 


I. —  Meteoric  Astronomy. 
II. —  Dr.  Siemens's  Theory  of  the  Sun. 
III.— Another  World   Down    Here. 
IV. —  The  Origin  of  Volcanoes. 
V. — Note  on  the  Direct  Effect  of  Sun-Spots  on 

Terrestrial  Climates. 
VI.— The  Philosophy  of  the  Radiometer  and  its 

Cosmical  Revelations. 
VII.— The  Solidity  of  the  Earth. 
VIII. — Meteoric  Astronomy. 


CONTENTS. 
IX.- 


X.- 

XI.- 
XII.- 

XIII.- 

XIV.- 

XV.- 

XVI.- 


•  Aerial  Exploration  of  the  Arctic  Regions. 
"Baily's  Beads." 
World-smashing. 

On    the    so-called   "Crater-Necks"  and 
"Volcanic  Bombs"  of  Ireland. 

-  Travertine. 

-Murchison  and  Babbage. 
-The  "Consumption  of  Smoke." 
-The  Air  of  Stove-heated  Rooms. 


No.  42. 

HISTORY 

POLLOCK. 


OF      THE      SCIENCE      OF       POLITICS.- By    FREDERICK 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I.— Introductory.— Place  of  the  Theory 
of  Politics  in  Human  Knowledge. 

Chapter  II.— The  Classic  Period:  Pericles— Soc- 
rates—Plato— Aristotle.— The  Greek  Ideal  of 
the  State. 

Chapter  III.—  The  Mediaeval  Period :  The  Papacy 
and  the  Empire. — Thomas  Aquinas — Dante — 
Bracton — Marsilio  of  Padua. 

Chapter  IV.— The  Modern  Period:  Machiavelli— 
Jean  Bodin— Sir  Thomas  Smith— Hobbes. 


Chapter  V.— The  Modern  Period  (contimted): 
Hooker — Locke — Rousseau — Blackstone. 

Chapter  VI. —  The  Modern  Period  (continued): 
Hume — Montesquieu — Burke. 

Chapter  VII.— The  Present  Century:  Political 
Sovereignty — Limits  of  State  Intervention — 
Bentham — Austin — Maine— Bagehot — Kant — 
Ahrens  —  Savigny  —  Cornewall  Lewis  —  John 
Stuart  Mill— Herbert  Spencer— Laboulaye. 


No.  43. 

DARWIN    AND    HUMBOLDT.-Their    Lives    and    Work.-By  Prof. 

HUXLEY  and  others. 

CONTENTS. 
CHARLES    DARWIN. 


I.— Introductory  Notice.— By  TH.  H.  HUXLEY. 

II.— Life  and  Character.  — By  GEO.  J.  ROMANES. 
III.— Work  in  Geology.— By  ARCHIBALD  GEIKIE. 
IV.— Work  in  Botany.-ByW.T.TmSELTON  DYER. 

V.— Work  in  Zoology.— By  GEO.  J.  ROMANES. 
VI.— Work  in  Psychology.— By  GEO.  J.  ROMANES. 


ALEXANDER  VON    HUMBOLDT. 

I.— An  Address  delivered  by  Louis  AGASSIZ  at 
the  Centennial  Anniversary  of  the  birth  of  ALEX- 
ANDER VON  HUMBOLDT,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  Sept.  14, 1869. 

II.— Remarks  by  Prof.  FREDERIC  H.  HEDGE,  of 
Harvard  University. 


THE   HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


No.  44  and  No.  45. 


THE     DAWN     OF     HISTORY.- An     Introduction     to     Prehistoric 

Study. —  Edited    by  C.  F.  KEAUY,  M.A.,  of    the  British  Museum.  —  In  Two 
Parts,  each   complete  in   itself. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I.— No.  44. 

Chapter      I.— The  Earliest  Traces  of  Man. 
Chapter     II.— The   Second   Stone  Age. 
Chapter  III.— The  Growth  of  Language. 
Chapter   IV. —  Families  of  Language. 
Chapter     V.— The  Nations   of  the  Old  World. 
Chapter   VI.— Early  Social   Life. 
Chapter  VII.— The  Village  Community. 


PART  II.—  No.  45. 
Chapter  VIII.— Religion. 
Chapter     IX.— Aryan  Religions. 
Chapter       X.— The  Other  World. 
Chapter     XI.— Mythologies  and  Folk-Tales. 
Chapter   XII.— Picture-Writing. 
Chapter  XIII.— Phonetic  Writing.  [ities. 

Chapter  XIV.— Conclusion.— Noles  and  Author- 


No.  46. 

THE     DISEASES     OF     MEMORY.- By  TH.  RIBOT,  author  of  "Heredity," 
"English  Psychology, "&c. —  Translated  from  the  French  by  J.  FITZGERALD,  A.M. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I.— MEMORY  AS  A  BIOLOGICAL,  FACT. 

Memory  essentially  a  biological  fact,  incident- 
ally a  psychic  fact. —  Organic  memory. — Mod- 
ifications of  nerve-elements;  dynamic  associa- 
tions between  these  elements.— Conscious  mem- 
ory.—  Conditions  of  consciousness:  intensity: 
duration.  —  Unconscious  cerebration.  —  Nerve- 
action  is  the  fundamental  condition  of  memory; 
consciousness  is  only  an  accessory. —  Localiza- 
tion in  the  past,  or  recollection. —  Mechanism 
of  this  operation. — It  is  not  a  simple  .and  instan- 
taneous act;  it  consists  of  the  addition  of  sec- 
ondary states  of  consciousness  to  the  principal 
state  of  consciousness.—  Memory  is  a  vision  in 
time  — Localization,  theoretical  and  practical. — 
Reference  points. —  Resemblance  and  difference 
between  localization  in  the  future  and  in  the 
past. — All  memory  an  illusion.  —  Forgetfulness 
a  condition  of  memory. — Return  to  the  starting- 
point  :  conscious  memory  tends  little  by  little  to 
become  automatic. 

Chapter  II.— GENERAL,  AMNESIA. 

Classification  of  the  diseases  of  memory. — Tem- 
porary amnesia.— Epileptics.  — Forgetfulness  of 
certain  periods  of  life. —  Examples  of  re-educa- 
tion.— Slow  and  sudden  i-ecoveries. — Case  of  pro- 
visional memory. —  Periodical  or  intermittent 
amnesia.— Formation  of  two  memories,  totally 
or  partially  distinct. —  Cases  of  hypnotism  re- 
corded byMacnish.Azam.  and  Dnfay.— Progress- 
ive amnesia. — Its  importance. — Reveals  the  law 
which  governs  the  destruction  of  memory.— Law 
of  regression :  enunciation  of  this  law. — In  what 


order  memory  fails.— Counter-proof :  it  is  recon- 
stituted in  inverse  order. — Confirmatory  facts. — 
Congenital  amnesia. — Extraordinary  memory  of 
some  idiots. 

Chapter  III.— PARTIAL  AMNESIA. 
Reduction  of  memory  to  memories. — Anatomical 
and  physiological  reasons  for  partial  memories^ 
— Amnesia  of  numbers,  names,  figures,forms.&c.. 
— Amnesia  of  signs. — Its  nature :  a  loss  of  motor- 
memory. — Examination  of  this  point. — Progress- 
ive amnesia  of  signs  verifies  completely  the  law 
of  regression.  —  Order  of  dissolution  :  proper 
names:  common  nouns;  verbs  and  adjectives; 
interjections,  and  language  of  the  emotions  r 
gestures.— Relation  between  this  dissolution  and1 
the  evolution  of  the  Indo-European  languages. — 
Counter-proof :  return  of  signs  in  inverse  ordeiv 

Chapter  IV.— EXALTATION  OF  MEMORY,  OR 

HYPERMNESIA. 

General  excitation.— Partial  excitation.— Return 
of  lost  memories.  —  Return  of  forgotten  lan- 
guages.—Reduction  of  this  fact  to  the  law  of  re- 
gression.—  Case  of  false  memory. —  Examples, 
and  a  suggested  explanation. 

Chapter  V.— CONCLUSION. 

Relations  between  the  retention  of  perceptions 
and  nutrition,  between  the  reproduction  of  rec- 
ollections and  the  general  and  local  circulation. 
—  Influence  of  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
blood. —  Examples. — The  law  of  regression  con- 
nected with  a  physiological  principle  and  a  psy- 
chological principle. —  Recapitulation. 


No.  47. 


THE   CHILDHOOD   OF  RELIGIONS.-Embracing  a  Simple  Account 
of  the   Birth   and   Growth   of  Myths  and   Legends.— By  EDWARD 

CLODD,  F.R.A.S.,  author  of  "The   Childhood    of   the  World,"   "The   Story  of 
Creation,"  &c. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I.- 
Chapter  II.- 
Chapter  III.- 
Chapter  IV.- 
Chapter  V.- 
Chapter  VI.- 
ChapterVIL- 


•  Introductory.  [Hon. 

•  Legends  of  the  Past  about  the  Crea- 

•  Creation  as  told  by  Science. 
-Legends  of  the  Past  about  Mankind. 

•  Early  Races  of  Mankind.         [tions. 
-The  "Aryan,  or  Indo-European  na- 
-The  Ancient   and    Modern   Hindu 

Religions. 


Chapter  VIII. — Zoroastrianism.  the  Ancient   Re- 
ligion of  Persia. 
Chapter     IX.— Buddhism.  . 
Chapter       X.— The  Religions  of  China. 
Chapter     XI.— The  Semitic  Nations. 
Chapter   XII.— Mohammedanism,  or  Islam. 
Chapter  XIII.— On  the  Study  of  the  Bible. 


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OF    POPULAR     SCIENCE. 


No.  48. 

LIFE     IN     NATURE.— By  JAMES  HINTON,  author  of  "Man  and   his  Dwelling- 
Place,"    "The   Mystery  of  Pain,"  &c. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter      I.— Of  Function;   or,  How  We  Act. 
Chapter    II.— Of  Nutrition;   or,  Why  We  Grow. 
Chapter  III.— Of  Nutrition;   The  Vital  Force. 
Chapter  IV.— Of  Living  Forms:  or,  Morphology. 
Chapter     V. — Living  Forms. —  The  Law  of  Form. 
Chapter  VI.— Is  Life  Universal? 
Chapter  VIL— The  Living  World. 


Chapter  VIII.— Nature  and  Man. 

Chapter     IX.— The  Phenomenal  and  the  True. 

Chapter       X. — Force . 

Chapter     XI.— The  Organic  and  the  Inorganic. 

Chapter   XII.  — The  Life  of  Man. 

Chapter  XIII.— Conclusion. 


No.  49. 

THE    SUN:    Its    Constitution;    Its    Phenomena;    Its    Condition.— 

By  NATHAN   T.  CAHR,  LL.D.,  Judge  of  the  Ninth  Judicial  Circuit  of  Indiana. 
With  an  Appendix  by  RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR  and  M.  W.  WILLIAMS. 


CONTENTS. 


Section        I.— Purpose  of  this  Essay.— Difficulties 
of  the  Subject. 

Distance  from  the  Earth  to  tiie  Sun. 

The  Diameter  of  the  Sun. 

The  Form  of  the  Sun. 

Rotaiy  Motion  of  the  Sun. 

Perturbating  Movement. 

The  Sun's  Orbital  Movement. 

The  Sun's  Atti-active  Force. — Den- 
sity of  the  Solar  Mass. 
Section     IX.— The  Sun's  Atmosphere. 
Section       X. —  The  Chromosphei-e. 
Section     XL — Corona,  Prominences,  and  Faculae. 
Section    XII.— The  Photosphere. 
Section  XIII.— The  Sun's  Heat. 
Section  XIV.— Condition  of  the  Interior. 
Section    XV.— Effects  of  Heat  on  Matter. 


Section  II 
Section  III 
Section  IV 
Section  V 
Section  VI 
Section  VII 
Section  VIII 


Section  XVI.- 
Section  XVII.- 
Section  XVI1L- 
Section  XIX.- 
Section  XX.- 
Section  XXI.- 

Section  XXII. - 
Section  XXIII.- 
Section  XXIV.- 
Section  XXV.- 
Section  XXVI.- 

Section  XXVII.- 
Section  XXVIII 


-The  Expansive  Power  of  Heat. 

-The  Sun's  Crust. 

-The  Gaseous  Theory. 

-The  Vapor  Theory. 

-The  "Cloud-like"  Theory. 

-Supposed  Supports  of  the  Fore- 
going Theories. 

-The  Crust  in  a  Fluid  Condition. 

-Production  of  the  Sun-Spots. 

-The  Area  of  Sun-Spots  Limited. 

-  Periodicity  of  the  Spots. 

-The  Spots  are  Cavities  in  the 
Sun. 

—  How  the  Heat  of  the  Sun  reaches 
the  Earth. 

,— The  Question  of  the  Extinction 
of  the  Sun. 


Appendix.—  First.— The  Sun's  Corona  and  his  Spots.— By  RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR. 
Second.— The  Fuel  of  the  Sun.— By  RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR. 
Third.— The  Fuel  of  the  Sun.— A  Reply,  by  W.  M.  WILLIAMS. 


No.  50  and  No.  51. 

MONEY  AND  THE  MECHANISM  OF  EXCHANGE.- By  W.  STANLEY 
JEVONS,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Logic  and  Political  Economy  in  the  Owens 
College,  Manchester,  England. —  In  Two  Parts. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter        I.—  Barter. 

Chapter      II. — Exchange. 

Chapter     III.— The  Functions  of  Money. 

Chapter     IV.— Early  History  of  Money. 

Chapter       V.—  Qualities  of  the  Material  of  Money 

Chapter     VI.— The  Metals  as  Money. 

Chapter   VII.— Coins. 

Chapter  VIII.— The  Principles  of  Circulation. 

Chapter     IX.— Systems  of  Metallic  Money. 

Chapter       X.— The  English  System  of  Metallic 

Currency. 

Chapter     XL— Fractional  Currency. 
Chapter   XII.— The  Battle  of  the  Standards. 
Chapter  XIII.— Technical     Matters    relating    to 

Coinage. 
Chapter  XIV.— International  Money. 


Chapter  XV.— 
Chapter  XVI.— 
Chapter  XVII.— 

Chapter  XVIII.— 

Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter  XXIII. 
Chapter  XXIV. 

Chapter    XXV. 
Chapter  XXVI. 


XIX. 
XX. 

XXI. 
XXII. 


The  Mechanism  of  Exchange. 

Representative  Money. 

The    Nature    and    Varieties    of 

Promissory  Notes. 
Methods  of  Regulating  a  Paper 

Currency. 

.Credit  Documents.         [System. 
Book   Credit  and   the  Banking 
The  Clearing-House  System. 
The  Check  Bank. 
Foreign   Bills  of  Exchange. 
The  Bank  of  England  and  the 

Money  Market. 

A  Tabular  Standard  of  Value. 
The  Quantity  of  Money  needed 

by  a  Nation. 


No.  52. 

THE     DISEASES     OF    THE     Wl LL-  By  TH.  RIBOT,  author  of  " The  Dis- 
eases of  Memory,"  &c. —  Translated  from  the  French  by  J.  FITZGERALD,  A.M. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I.— Introduction.- The  Question  Stated. 
Chapter   II.— Impairment  of  the  Will.— Lack  of 

Impulsion. 
Chapter  III.— Impairment  of  the  Will.— Excess  of 

Impulsion. 


Chapter  IV. — Impairment  of  VoluntaryAttention. 
Chapter     V.— The  Realm  of  Caprice. 
Chapter  VI.— Extinction  of  the  Will. 
Chapter  VIL— Conclusion. 


THE   HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


No.  53. 

ANIMAL    AUTOMATISM, 

HENRY  HUXLEY,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 


AND     OTHER     ESSAYS.- By  THOMAS 


I.— On    the    Hypothesis    that    Animals    are 

Automata,  and  its  History. 
II. —  Science  and   Culture. 
III. — On  Elementary  Instruction  in  Physiology. 


CONTENTS. 

IV. —  On    the    Border    Territory    between    the 
Animal  and  the  Vegetable  Kingdoms. 


V.— Universities:   Actual  and  Ideal. 


THE  BIRTH  AND  GROWTH  OF  M YTHS.-  By  EDWARD  CLODD, 
F.R.A.S.,  author  of  "The  Childhood  of  the  World,"  "The  Childhood  of  Re- 
ligions," "The  Story  of  Creation,"  &e. 

CONTENTS. 


XI. —  Metempsychosis  and  Transformation. 
XII. — Transformation   in   the   Middle  Ages. 
XIII.—  The  Belief  in  Transformation  Universal. 
XIV.— Beast-Fables. 

XV. —  Totemism. 

XVI. — Heraldry:   Ancestor- worship.  [tives. 

XVII. —  Survival   of  Myth  in  Historical   Narra- 
XVIIL— Myths  of  King  Arthur  and   Llewellyn. 
XIX  —  Semitic  Myths  and  Legends. 
XX.— Conclusion. 
Appendix. —  An  American  Indian  Myth. 


I.— Nature  as  Viewed  by  Primitive  Man. 
H. — Personification  of  the  Powers  of  Natui-e. 
m.— The  Sun  and  Moon  in  Mythology. 
IV.— The    Theories     of    Certain    Comparative 

Mythologists. 
V. — Aryan  Mythology. 

VI.— The  Primitive  Nature-Myth  Transformed. 
VII.— The  Stars  in  Mythology. 
VIII.— Myths  of  the  Destructive  Forces  of  Nature. 
IX.— The  Hindu  Sun-aud-Cloud  Myth. 
X. — Demonology. 

No.  55. 

THE    SCIENTIFIC    BASIS   OF  MORALS,  AND   OTHER   ESSAYS. 

By  WILLIAM  KINGDON  CLIFFORD,  F.R.S. 

CONTENTS. 

I.— On  the   Scientific  Basis  of  Morals.  I    III.— The  Ethics  of  Belief. 

II.— Right    and  Wrong:    the  Scientific  Ground          IV.— The  Ethics  of  Religion, 
of  their  Distinction. 

No.  56  and  No.  57. 

ILLUSIONS:    A    PSYCHOLOGICAL    STUDY.- By  JAMES  SULLY,  author 
of  "Sensation  and  Intuition,"  "Pessimism,"  &c. —  In  Two  Parts. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter      I.— The  Study  of  Illusion. 
Chapter    II.—  The  Classification  of  Illusions. 
Chapter  III. — Illusions  of  Perception :  General. 
Chapter  IV.— Illusions  of  Perception  (continued). 
Chapter     V. —  Illusions  of  Perception  (continued). 
Chapter  VI.— Illusions  of  Perception  (continued). 
Chapter  VII.— Dreams. 


Chapter  VIII. — Illusions  of  Introspection. 
Chapter     IX.— Other    Quasi-Presentative    Illu- 
sions:   Errors  of  Insight. 
Chapter       X. — Illusions  of  Memory. 
Chapter     XI.— Illusions  of  Belief/ 
Chapter    XII.— Results. 


No.  58  and  No. 


Two  double  numbers.  30  cents  each. 


THE    ORIGIN    OF  SPECIES    BY  MEANS   OF  NATURAL  SELEC- 
TION, or  the  Preservation   of  Favored    Races   in  the   Struggle 

for   Life. —  B.V  CHARLES  DARWIN,  M.A.,  F.R.S. —  New  edition,  from  the  sixth 
and  latest  English  edition,  with  additions  and  corrections. — Tiro  double  numbers. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter        I.— Variation  under  Domestication. 

Chapter      II.— Variation  under  Nature. 

Chapter     III. —  Struggle  for  Existence. 

Chapter  IV.— Natural  Selection;  or.  the  Sur- 
vival of  the  Fittest. 

Chapter       V.— Laws  of  Vaiiation. 

Chapter     VI.— Difficulties  of  the  Theory. 

Chapter  VII.— Miscellaneous  Objections  to  the 
Theory  of  Natural  Selection. 

Chapter  VIII.—  Instinct.' 

Chapter     IX.— Hybridism. 


Chapter  X.— On  the  Imperfection  of  the  Geo- 
logical Record. 

Chapter  XI. — On  the  Geological  Succession  of 
Organic  Beings. 

Chapter   XII.— Geological  Distribution. 

Chapter  XIII.— Geological  Distribution  (contin'd). 

Chapter  XIV.— Mutual  Affinities  of  Organic  Be 
ings:  Morphology:  Embryology: 
Rudimentary  Organs. 

Chapter   XV. —  Recapitulation  and  Conclusion. 

Index. —  Glossary  of   Scientific   Terms. 


Published    monthly. —  $1.5O  per  annum. —  Single  numbers,  15  cents. 


OF    POPULAR     SCIENCE. 


No.  60. 


THE  CHILDHOOD  OF  THE  WORLD -A  Simple  Account  of  Man 
in  Early  Times.— By  EDWARD  CLODD,  F.R.A.S.,  author  of  "The  Childhood 
of  Religions,"  "The  Story  of  Creation,"  &c. 


L- 

II.- 

III.- 

IV.- 

V. 

VI.- 

VII.- 

VIIL- 

IX.- 

X.- 

XI.- 

XII.- 

XIII.- 

XIV.- 

XV.- 


XVI.- 

XVII.- 

XVIIL- 


CONTENTS. 
PART  I.  XIX 

-  Introductory.  XX.- 

-  Man's  First  Wants.  XXI.- 

-  Man's  First  Tools.  XXII.- 
-Fire.                                                                             XXIII.- 
-Cooking  and  Pottery.                                              XXIV.- 

-  Dwellings.  XXV.- 
-Use  of  Metals.                                                           XXVI.- 

-  Man's  Great  Age  on  the  Earth.  XXVII.  - 

-  Mankind    as    Shepherds,   Farmers,   and  XXVIII.— 

Traders. 

-  Language. 

-  Writing. 

-  Counting. 

-Man's  Wanderings  from  his  first  Home. 

-  Man's  Progress  in  all  things. 

-  Decay  of  Peoples. 


PART  II. 
•  Introductory. 
•Man's  First  Questions. 

•Myths. 


XXIX.- 
XXX.- 
XXXI.- 

XXXII.- 
XXXIII. - 
XXXIV.- 

XXXV.- 
XXXVI.- 
XXXVII.- 


Myths  about  Sun  and  Moon. 

Myths  about  Eclipses. 

Myths  about  Stars. 

Myths  about  the  Earth  and  Man. 

Man's  Ideas  about  the  Soul. 

Belief  in  Magic  and  Witchcraft. 

Man's  Awe  of  the  Unknown. 

Fetish -Worship. 

Idolatry. 

Nature  -Worship. 

1.  Water -Worship. 

2.  Tree  -Worship. 

3.  Animal -Worship. 
Polytheism,  or  Belief  in  Many  Gods 
Dualism,  or  Belief  in  Two  Gods. 
Prayer. 

Sacrifice. 

Monotheism,  or  Belief  in  One  God. 

Three  Stories  About  Abraham. 

Man's  Belief  in  a  Future  Life. 

Sacred   Books. 

Conclusion. 


No.  61. 

MISCELLANEOUS     ESSAYS.-By  RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR,  B.A.,  F.R.A.S. 

author  of  "The  Sun,"  "Other  Worlds  than  Ours,"  "Saturn,"  &c. 


CONTENTS. 


I. —  Strange  Coincidences. 
II. —  Coincidences  and   Superstitions. 
III. —  Gambling  Superstitions. 
IV.— Learning  Languages. 


V.— Strange  Sea  Creatures. 
VI.— The  Origin  of  Whales. 
VII.— Prayer  and  Weather. 


No.  62. 

THE    RELIGIONS    OF  THE   ANCIENT   WORLD,  including   Egypt, 
Assyria  and  Babylonia,  Persia,  India,  Phoenicia,  Etruria,  Greece, 

Rome. —  By  GEORGE  RAWLINSON,  M.A.,  Camden  Professor  of  Ancient  History, 
Oxford,  and  Canon,  of  Canterbury. — Author  of  "The  Origin  of  Nations,"  "The 
Five  Great  Monarchies,"  &c. 

CONTENTS. 


Chapter      I. —  The    Religion    of    the    Ancient 

Egyptians. 
Chapter    II.  — The  Religion  of  the  Assyrians 

and  Babylonians. 
Chapter  III.  —  The    Religion    of    the    Ancient 

Iranians-  • .. 

Chapter  IV.  — The     Religion     of     the     Early 

Sanskritic    Indians. 


Chapter  V.— The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians 
and  Carthaginians. 

Chapter     VI.— The  Religion  of   the  Etruscans. 

Chapter  VII.— The  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Greeks. 

Chapter  VIII.— The  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Romans. 

Concluding  Remarks. 


No. 


PROGRESSIVE    MORALITY.- An    Essay   in   Ethics- By  THOMAS 

FOWLER,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.S.A.,  President  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Wykeham 
Professor  of  Logic  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I.  —  Introduction. —  The  Sanctions  of 
Conduct. 

Chapter  II.  — The  Moral  Sanction  or  Moral 
Sentiment.— Its  Functions,  and 
the  Justification  of  its  Claims  to 
.  Superiority. 


Chapter  III.  —  Analysis  and  Formation  of  the 
Moral  Sentiment.— Its  Education 
and  Improvement. 

Chapter  IV.—  The  Moral  Test  and  its  Justification. 

Chapter  V.— The  Practical  Application  of  the 
Moral  Test  to  Existing  Morality. 


THE    HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


EVOLUTION    IN    HISTORY,   LANGUAGE,  AND    SCIENCE. 

Four  addresses  delivered  at  the  London  Crystal  Palace  School  of  Art,  Science, 
and  Literature. 

Past  and  Present  in  the  East.—  A  Parallelism  demonstrating  the  principle 
of  Causal  Evolution,  and  the  necessity  of  the  study  of  General  History.  — 
By  G.  G.  ZERFFI,  D.Ph.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Historical  Society  of  London. 

A  Plea  for  a   More   Scientific   Study  of  Geography.  —  By  Rev.  w.  A. 

HALES,  M.A.,  formerlv  Exhibitioner'  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge. 
III. 

Hereditary  Tendencies    as    Exhibited    in     History.  —  By  HENRY  ELLIOT 

MALDEN,  M.A.,  F.R.H.S.,  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge. 
IV. 

Vicissitudes    of   the    English    Language.  —  By  Rev.  ROBINSON  THORNTON, 

D.D.,  F.R.H.S.,  formerly  Fellow  of   St.  John's   College,  Oxford. 


Nos.  74.  75,  76,  77  (double  number). 

THE     DESCENT    OF 


TO     SEX.  —  By  CHARLES 
vised   and   Augmented. 


MAN,    AND    SELECTION     IN     RELATION 


DARWIN.—  With  Illustrations.—  New  Edition,  Re- 


PART I. 

THE  DESCENT  OR  ORIGIN  OF  MAN. 

Chapter  I.— The  Evidence  of  the  Descent  of 
Man  from  some  Lower  Form. 

Chapter  II. —  On  the  Manner  of  Development  of 
Man  from  some  Lower  Form. 

Chapter  III. — Comparison  of  the  Mental  Powers 
of  Man  and  the  Lower  Animals. 

Chapter  IV. —  Comparison  of  the  Mental  Powers 
of  Man  and  the  Lower  Animals 
(continued). 

Chapter  V.— On  the  Development  of  the  Intel- 
lectual and  Moral  Faculties  dur- 
ing Primeval  and  Civilized  Times 

Chapter  VI. —  On  the  Affinities  and  Genealogy  of 
Man. 

Chapter  VH.— On  the  Races  of  Man. 


CONTENTS. 

Chapter 


PART  II. 

SEXUAL  SELECTION. 

Chapter     VIII.— Principles  of  Sexual  Selection. 
Chapter        IX. — Secondary  Sexual  Character  in 
the  Lower  Classes  of  the  An- 
imal Kingdom. 

*%  Numbers  74,  75,  76.  are  single  numbers  (15  cents  each) ;   Number  77  is  a  double  number  (30  cents). 
Price  of  the  entire  work  75  cents. 


X.— Secondary  Sexual  Characters  of 

Insects. 
Chapter         XI.— Insects  (continued)— Order  Lepi- 

doptera(butternies  and  moths) 
Chapter       XII. —  Secondary  Sexual  Characters  of 

Fishes,  Amphibians,  and  Rep- 
tiles. 
Chapter     XIII. —  Secondarv  Sexual  Characters  of 

Birds.  " 

Chapter  XIV.— Birds  (continued). 
Chapter  XV. —  Birds  (continued). 
Chapter  XVI— Birds  (conceded). 
Chapter  XVII.— Secondary  Sexual  Characters  of 

Mammals. 
Chapter  XVIII.— Secondary  Sexual  Characters  of 

Mammals  (continued). 

PART  III. 
SEXUAL,  SELECTION  IN  RELATION  f o  MAN, 

AND  CONCLUSION. 
Chapter     XIX.— Secondary  Sexual  Characters  of 

Man. 

Chapter       XX. —  Secondary  Sexual  Characters  of 
Man  (continued).  [siou. 

Chapter      XXI. —  General  Summary  and  Conclu- 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH    OF  THE    DISTRIBUTION    OF  LAND    IN 
ENGLAND,  with  Suggestions  for  some  Improvement  in  the  law. 

By  WILLIAM  LLOYD  BIRKBECK,  M.A.,  Master  of  Downing  College,  and  Downing 
Professor  of  the  Laws  of  England  in  the  University  of  Cambridge. 


PART  I. 
I. —  Anglo-Saxon  Agriculture. —  Geiieats    and 

Geburs.— Villani. 

II. — Agriculture  after  the  Conquest. — Villein- 
age.— Copyholders. — Continental  Serfs. 
III. — Origin  of  Large  Properties. —  Estates  of 
Anglo-Saxon    Nobility.  —  Evidence    of 
Domesday. 

IV.— The  Soke.— Socage  Tenure. 
V.— Agricultural  Communities. 
VI.— Mr.  Seebohm. 

VII.— The  First  Taxation  of  Laud.— The  Hide. 
VIII. — Saxon  Law  of  Succession  to  Land. 

IX.— Effect  of  the  Norman  Conquest  on  the 

Distribution  of  Land. 
X. — Norman  Law  of  Succession. 
XL— Strict  Entails.— The  Statute  "De  Donis 

Conditionalibus. " 
XII.  — Effects  of  Strict  Entails.— Scotch  Entails. 


CONTENTS. 
XIII. 


Relaxation  of  Strict  Entails.  — Common 

Recoveries. 
XIV.— Henry  VII.  and  his  Nobles.— The  Statute 

of  Fines. 

XV.— Strict   Settlements. 
XVI.— Effect  of  Strict  Settlements  of  Land.— 

Mr.  Thorold  Rogers. 

XVII.— Trustees    to    Preserve    Contingent    Re- 
mainders. 

XVIII.— Powers  of   Sale. 

XIX.— Inclosure  of  Waste  Lands. —Mr.  John 
Walter.— Foi-mation  of  a  Peasant  Pro- 
prietary.   

PART  II. 

I.— Amendment  of  Law  of  Primogeniture. 
II. —  Proposed   System   of   Registration. 
III. — Modern  Registration  Acts. 
IV.— The  Present  General  Registration  Act. 


Published   monthly.—  $1.5O   per  annum.—  Single  numbers,  15  cents. 


OF    POPULAR     SCIENCE. 


No.  7r. 

SCIENTIFIC    ASPECTS    OF    SOME     FAMILIAR    THINGS.- By  w. 

M.  WILLIAMS,  F.K.S.,  F.C.S'. 


CONTENTS. 


I.— On  the   Social  Benefits  of  Paraffin. 
II. — The  Formation   of   Coal. 
III.— The  Chemistry  of  Bog  Reclamation. 
IV.— The   Coloring   of   Green   Tea. 

V.— "Iron-Filings"  in  Tea. 
VI.— The   Origin   of   Soap. 


VII.— The  Action  of  Frost  in  Water-Pipes  and 

on   Building  Materials.     . 
VIII.— Fire-Clay  and  Anthracite. 
IX. —  Count  Ruml'ord's  Cooking-Stoves. 
X.— The  Air  of  Stove-Heated  Rooms. 
XI. — Domestic  Ventilation. 


No.  80. 

CHARLES 


DARWIN:    HIS 


Double  number,  3O  cents. 

LIFE    AND    WORK.- By  GRANT  ALLEN. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I. — The  World  into  which  Darwin  was 

born. 

Chapter   II.— Charles  Darwin  and  his  Antecedents. 
Chapter  III.— Early  Days. 
Chapter  IV. — Darwin's  Wander- Years. 
Chapter    V. —  The  Period  of  Incubation. 
Chapter  VI. —  "The  Origin  of  Species." 


Chapter    VII. — The  Darwinian  Revolution  begins. 
Chapter  VIII.— The  Descent  of  Man. 
Chapter      IX.— The  Theory  of  Courtship. 
Chapter       X.— Victory  and  Rest. 
Chapter      XI.— Darwin's  Place  in  the  Evolution- 
ary Movement. 
Chapter    XII.— The  Net  Result. 


No.  81. 

THE     MYSTERY    OF     MATTER:     and 
THE     PHILOSOPHY    OF    IGNORANCE. 


r.  ALLANSON  PICTON. 


No.  82. 

ILLUSIONS     OF    THE     SENSES:    AND     OTHER     ESSAYS.-By 

RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR. 

CONTENTS. 

I.— Illusions  of  the  Senses.  I          V.— Our  Dual  Brain. 
II.— Animals  of  the  Present  and  the  Past.  VI.— A  New  Star  in  a  Star-Cloud. 

III.— Life  in  Other  Worlds.  VII.— Monster   Sea-Serpents. 

IV.— Earthquakes.  I     VIII.— The  Origin  of  Comets. 

No.  83. 

PROFIT-SHARING   BETWEEN   CAPITAL  AND   LABOR.-Six  Essays. 

By  SEDLEY  TAYLOR,  M.A.,  late  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  Eng. 


CONTENTS. 


Essay     I. — Profit-Sharing  in  the  Maison  Leclaire. 
Essay   II. — Profit-Sharing  in  Industry. 
Essay  III. — Profit-Sharing  in  Industry  (continued}. 
Essay  IV.— Profit-Sharing  in  the  Paris  and  Orleans 
Railway  Company. 


Essay   V.— Profit-Sharing  in  Agriculture. 

Appendix  to   Essay  V.  —  Mr.  Vande- 
leur's   Irish   Expei'iment. 

Essay  VI.—  Profit  -Sharing  in  Distributive  Enter- 
prise. 


No.  84. 

STUDIES    OF    ANIMATED    NATURE.-Fom  Essays,  viz., 

Bats.  — By  W.  S.  DALLAS,  F.L.S. 

Dragon-Flies.— By  w-  s-  DALLAS,  F.L.S. 

The  Glow-worm   and   other  Phosphorescent  Animals.— By  G.  G.  Cms- 

HOLM,    M.A.,    B.Sc. 

Minute    Organisms.-By  FREDERICK  P.  BALKWILL. 

No.  85. 

THE    ESSENTIAL    NATURE    OF    RELIGION.- By  J.  ALLANSON  PICTON, 
author  of  "The  Mystery  of  Matter,"  &c. 


CONTENTS. 


IV.— Prophetic  Religions. 
V. —  Religious  Dogma. — The  Future  of  Religion. 


I.— Religion  and  Freedom  of  Thought. 
II.— The  Evolution  of  Religion.— Fetichism. 
III.— Nature  -  Woi-ship. 

.—    .     .1  .       .!.  — I  I  ' 

THE   HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


No.  86. 

THE     UNSEEN     UNIVERSE.— By  WILLIAM  KINGDON  CLIFFORD,  F.R.S. 

TO    WHICH    IS    ADDED 

THE    PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE    PURE    SCIENCES.- By  WILLIAM  KING- 
DON  CLIFFORD,  F.R.S. 


I.— Statement  of  the  Question. 
II. —  Knowledge  and  Feeling. 


CONTENTS. 

I      III.— The  Postulates  of  the  Science  of  Space. 
IV.— The  Universal  Statements  of  Arithmetic. 


No.  87. 

THE      MORPHINE      HABIT    (MORPHINOMANIA).- Three  Lectures  by 
Professor  B.  BALL,  M.D.,  of  the  Paris  Faculty  of  Medicine. 

CONTENTS. 


III. —  Moi'phinomama. — Diagnosis.  Prognosis,  and 
Treatment. 


I. — Morphinomania.  —  General     Description. — 

Effects  of  the  Abuse  of  Morphine. 
II. —  Morphinomania.  —  Effects     of    Abstinence 
from  Morphine. 

To  which  is  appended  four  other  lectures,  viz., 

!•— The  Border-Land  of  Insanity.  I      ni.—  Prolonged    Dreams. 
II.— Cerebral    Dualism.  I      IV-—  Insanity   in   Twins. 

SCIENCE   AND   CRIME,  AND    OTHER    ESSAYS -By  ANDREW  WILSON, 
F.R.S.E. 


I.— The  Earliest  Known  Life-Relic. 
II. —  About  Kangaroos, 
in.— On  Giants. 


CONTENTS. 

I        IV.— The  Polity  ef  a  Pond. 
V.— Skates  and  Rays. 
VI.— Leaves. 


No.  89. 


THE     GENESIS    OF    SCIENCE. -By  HERBERT  SPENCER. 


TO    WHICH    IS    ADDED 


THE    COMING    OF  AGE    OF  "THE    ORIGIN    OF   SPECIES."-By 

Professor  THOMAS  HENRY  HUXLEY,  F.R.S. 


No.  .90. 


NOTES  ON    EARTHQUAKES:  with  Thirteen  Miscellaneous  Essays. 

By  RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR. 


CONTENTS. 


I. — Notes  on  Earthquakes. 
II.— Photographing  Fifteen   Million  Stars. 
III.— The  Story  of  the  Moon. 
IV.— The  Earth's  Past. 
V.— The  Story  of  the  Earth. 
VI.— The  Falls  of  Niagara. 
VII.— The  Unknowable. 


VIII.— Sun -Worship. 
IX.— Herbert   Spencer  on  Priesthoods. 
X.— The  Star  of  Bethlehem  and  a  Bible  Comet. 
XI.— An  Historical  Puzzle. 
XEE.— Galileo,  Darwin,  and  the  Pope. 
XIII.— Science   and  Politics. 
XIV.— Parents   and  Children. 


No.  91.  Double  number,  3tt   cents. 

THE     RISE     OF    UNIVERSITIES.- By  S.  S.  LAURIE,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  the 
Institutes  and  History  of  Education  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 


CONTENTS. 


I.— The  Romano-Hellenic  Schools  and  their 

Decline. 
II.— Influence  of  Christianity  on  Education,  and 

Rise  of  Christian  Schools, 
m.— Charlemagne  and  the  Ninth  Century. 
IV.— InnerWork  of  Christian  Schools  (450-1100). 
V.— Tenth  and  Eleventh  Centuries. 
VI.— The  Rise  of  Universities  (A.  D.  1100). 
VII.— The  First  Universities.— The  Schola  Saler- 

nitana  and  the  University  of  Naples. 
VIII.— The  University  of  Bologna. 


IX— The  University  of  Paris. 
X.— The  Constitution    of   Universities.  —  The 
terms  "Studium  Generate"  and  "Uni- 
versitas." 

XI.— Students,  their  Numbers  and  Discipline.— 
Privileges  of  Universities.— Faculties. 
XII. — Graduation. 
XIII.— Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
XIV.— The  University  of  Prague. 
XV.— University  Studies  and  the  Conditions  of 
Graduation. 


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OF    POPULAR     SCIENCE, 


No.  92.  Double  number,  30   cents. 

THE    FORMATION    OF  VEGETABLE    MOULD    THROUGH    THE 
Action    of    Earthworms,  with   Observations    on    their   Habits.— 

By  CHARLES  DARWIN,  LL.D.,  F.K.S. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I. —  Habits  of  Worms. 

Chapter    II.— Habits  of  Worms  (continued). 

Chapter  III. — The  Amount  of  Fine  Earth  brought 
up  by  Worms  to  the  surface. 

Chapter  IV. — The  Part  which  Worms  have  played 
in  the  Burial  of  Ancient  Build- 
ings. 


Chapter  V.— The  Action  of  Worms  in  the  Denu- 
dation of  the  Land. 

Chapter  VI. —  The  Denudation  of  the  Land  (con- 
tinued). 

Chapter  VII.— Conclusion. 


No.  93. 

SCIENTIFIC      METHODS 

MOUNT  BLEYER,  M.D. 

I. —  General  Review  of  the  Subject. 
II.— Death  by  Hanging. 
III.— Death  by  Electricity. 
IV.— Death  by  Morphine  Injection. 


OF     CAPITAL 


CONTENTS. 


Special  number,   10   cents. 

PUNISHMENT.-By  J. 


V.— Death  by  Chloroform. 
VI.— Death  by  Prussic  Acid. 
VII. — Ob j  ections   Considered. 


TO    WHICH    IS    ADDED 


INFLICTION    OF    THE    DEATH     PENALTY.- By  PARK  BENJAMIN. 


No.  94. 

THE    FACTORS 


OF   ORGANIC     EVOLUTION.-By  HERBERT  SPENCER. 


No.  95. 

THE     DISEASES     OF    PERSONALITY.- By  TH.  RIBOT.- Translated  from 
the  French  by  J.  FITZGERALD,  M.A. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I. —  Introduction. 
Chapter    II. —  Organic  Disturbance. 
Chapter  III. — Affective  Disturbance. 


Chapter  IV.— Intellective  Disturbance. 
Chapter    V.— Dissolution   of  Personality. 
Chapter  VI.—  Conclusion. 


No.  96. 

A    HALF-CENTURY    OF    SCIENCE -By  THOMAS  HENRY  HUXLEY,  F.K.S. 

TO    WHICH    IS    ADDED 

THE   PROGRESS  OF  SCIENCE  from  1836  to  1 886.-By GRANT  ALLEN. 


No.  97. 

THE     PLEASURES 

F.R.S.,   D.C.L.,  LL.D. 


OF     LIFE.  —  By  Sir  JOHN    LUBBOCK,  Bart.,  M.P., 


Chapter     I.— The  Duty  of  Happiness. 
Chapter    II.— The  Happiness  of  Duly. 
Chapter  III.— A  Song  of  Books. 
Chapter  IV.— The  Choice  of  Books. 
Chapter    V.— The  Blessing  of  Friends. 


PAUT  FIRST. 
CONTENTS. 

Chapter  VI.— The  Value  of  Time. 

Chapter  VII.— The  Pleasures  of  Travel. 

Chapter  VIII.— The  Pleasures  of  Home. 

Chapter  IX.  —  Science . 

Chapter  X. —  Education. 


*%  PART  SECOND.  —  For  the  contents  of  Part  Second  see  No.  Ill  of  this  Catalogue. 
No.  98. 

COSMIC     EMOTION. -Also,  THE    TEACHING    OF    SCIENCE.-By 

WILLIAM  KINGDON  CLIFFORD,  F.E.S. 

No.  99. 

NATURE-STUDIES.  —  Four  Essays  by  various  authors,  viz., 

I. —  Flame. —  By  Prof.  F.  R.  EATON  LOWE. 
H.— Birds    of    Passage.— By  Dr.  ROBERT  BROWN,  F.L.S. 
III.— Snow.— By  GEORGE  G.  CHISHOLM,  F.R.G.S. 
IV  —  Caves.— By  JAMES  DALLAS,  F.L.S. 

THE   HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place.  New  York. 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


No.  100. 

SCIENCE     AND      POETRY,    AND     OTHER      ESSAYS.-By 

ANDREW  WILSON,  F.E.S.E. 

I. —  Science     and     Poetry. —  A  Valedictory  Address  to  a  Literary  Society. 

n.— The    Place,   Method,   and   Advantages   of    Biology   in    Ordi- 
nary  Education. 

III.— Science -Culture      for     the      Masses.  — An   Opening    Lecture   at  a 
"People's  College." 

IV.— The    Law  of    Likeness,   and    its    Working. 

No.  101. 

AESTHETICS.— BJ  JAMES  SULLY,  M.A. 


CONTENTS. 


(A).— Metaphysical   Problems. 
(B).— Scientific  Problems. 
(C).—  History  of  Systems. 

DREAMS.— B7  JAMES  SULLY,  M.A. 


II.— German  "Writers  on  ^Esthetics. 
III.— French  Writers  on  ^Esthetics. 
IV.— Italian  and  Dutch  Writers  on  ^Esthetics. 

V.— English  Writers  on  ^Esthetics. 


The  Dream  as  Immediate  Objective  Experience. 
The  Dream  as  a  Communication  from  a  Super- 
natural Being. 
Modern  Theory  of  Dreams. 


CONTENTS. 

The  Sources  of  Dream-Materials. 
The  Order  of  Dream-Combinations. 
The  Objective  Reality  and  Intensity  of  Dream- 
Imaginations. 

TO   WHICH    IS    ADDED 

ASSOCIATION     OF     IDEAS.— B>r  Prof-  GEORGE  GROOM  ROBERTSON. 

Xo.  102. 

ULTIMATE     FINANCE.-A  True  Theory    of   Co-operation. -By 

WILLIAM   NELSON   BLACK. 

PART  FIRST. 

CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I.— The  Origin  of   Social    Discontent. 

Chapter    II.— Definition  of  Capital. 

Chapter  III. —  Men  not  Capitalists    because    not 

Creators  of  Capital. 

Chapter  IV.—  Social  Results  Considered. 
Chapter  V. —  The  Evolution  of  Finance. 
Chapter  VI.— Every  Man  his  own  Householder. 


Chapter   VII.— Illustrations  from  Real  Life. 
Chapter  VIII.— Effects   of  Material   Growth. 
Chapter      IX. —  Objections   Answered. 
Chapter       X.— Some  Political  Reflections. 

Appendix.— An  Act  for  the  Incorporation  ot 
Bond  Insurance  Companies. 


PART   SECOND. — For  the  contents  of  Part  Second  see  No.  107  of  this  Catalogue. 


No.  103. 


.  The   Coming  Slavery.—  -•  The   Sins  of  Legislators.— 3- The   Great 
Political    Superstition.—  Three  Essays  by  HERBERT  SPENCER. 


No.  104. 

TROPICAL 


AFRICA.—  By  HENRY   DRUMMOND,   LL.D.,   F.R.S.EV   L.G.S. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter      I.— The  Water-Route  to  the  Heart  of 

Africa. —  The    Rivers    Zambesi 

and  Shire. 
Chapter    II.— The  East  African  Lake  Country.— 

Lakes  Shirwa  and  Nyassa. 
Chapter  III.— The  Aspect  of  the  Heart  of  Africa. 

The  Country  and  its  People. 
Chapter  IV.— The  Heart-Disease  of  Africa.— Its 

Pathology  and  Cure. 


Chapter  V.— Wanderings  on  the  Nyassa-Tangan- 
yika  Plateau.  —  A  Traveler's 
Diary. 

Chapter     VI.— The  White  Ant.— A  Theory. 

Chapter  VII.— Mimicry.— The  Ways  of  African 
Insects. 

Chapter  VIII.— A  Geological  Sketch. 

Chapter     IX.— A  Political  Warning. 

Chapter       X.  — A  Meteorological  Note. 


Published    monthly. —  $1.50  per  annum. —  Single  numbers,  15  cents. 


OF    POPULAR     SCIENCE. 


No.  105. 

FREEDOM 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  TEACHING.- By  ERNST  HAECKEL, 
Professor  in  the  University  of  Jena.  —  With  a  Prefatory  Note  by  Professor 
THOMAS  HENRY  HUXLEY,  F.E.S. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter     T. — Development  and  Creation. 
Chapter    II.  — Certain  Proofs  of  the  Doctrine  of 

Descent. 
Chapter  III.— The    Skull    Theory   and    the    Ape 

Theory. 
Chapter  IV.— The    Cell-Soul    and    the    Cellular 

Psychology. 


Chapter      V.—  The   Genetic   and   the   Dogmatic 
Methods  of  Teaching. 


Chapter 


VI.— The    Doctrine    of    Descent    and 
Social  Democracy. 


Chapter   VII.— Ignorabimus  et  Restringamur. 


No.  106. 


FORCE    AND    ENERGY.-A  Theory  of  Dynamics.- By  GRANT  ALLEN. 


CONTENTS. 
PART  I.— ABSTRACT  OR  ANALYTIC. 


Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 

Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 

I.—  Power. 
II.—  Force. 
III.—  Energy. 
IV.—  The  Species  of  Force. 
V.—  The  Species  of  Energy. 
VI.—  The  Modes  of  Energy. 
VII.—  The  Kinds  of  Kinesis. 
VIII.—  The  Persistence  of  Force. 
IX.—  The  Conservation  »f  Energy. 

PART  II.—  CONCRE 

I.—  Dynamical  Formula  of  the  U-ni- 
II.—  The  Sidereal  System.         [verse. 
III.—  The  Solar  System. 
IV.—  The  Earth. 

Chapter        X.—  The  Indestructibility  of  Power. 
Chapter       XI.—  The     Mutual     Interference     of 
Forces. 
Chapter     XII.—  The  Suppression  of  Energies. 
Chapter   XIII.—  Liberating  Energies. 
Chapter    XIV.—  Miscellaneous  Illustrations. 
Chapter     XV.—  The  Dissipation  of  Energy. 
Chapter    XVI.—  The  Nature  of  Energy. 
Chapter  XVII.—  The  Nature  of  Motion. 

TE  OR  SYNTHETIC. 

Chapter       V.  —  Organic  Life. 
Chapter     VI.—  The  Vegetal  Organism. 
Chapter   VII.  —  The  Animal  Organism.         [gies. 
Chapter  VIII.—  General  View  of  Mundane  Ener- 

No.  107. 

ULTIMATE        FINANCE.- A    True    Theory     of     Wealth.- By 

WILLIAM    NELSON   BLACK. 

PART    SECOND. 
CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I.— The  Origin  of  Property. 

Chapter    II.— The  Evolution  of   Wealth. 

Chapter  III. — Banking,  and  its  Relation  to  Accu- 
mulation. 

Chapter  IV. —  The  Relation  of  Insurance  to  Accu- 
mulation. 


Chapter  V.—The  Creative  and  Benevolent  Feat- 
ures of  Fortune-Hunting. 

Chapter  VI.— Wealth  an  Enforced  Contributor 
to  the  Public  Welfare. 

Chapter  VII. — The  Impairment  and  Destructio7» 
ef  Property. 


*%  PART  FIRST.  — For  the  contents  of  Part  First  see  No.  102  of  this  Catalogue. 

No.  108  and  No.  109.  No.  108  is  a  double  number,  30  cents. 

ENGLISH:     PAST    AND     PRESENT.- A  Series  of  Eight  Lectures  by 
RICHARD    CHENEVIX    TRENCH,  D.D.,  Archbishop  of  Dublin. 


CONTENTS. 


Lecture     I.— The   English  Vocabulary. 
Lecture    II.— English  as  it  might    have  been. 
Lecture  III.— Gains  of  the  English  Language. 
Lecture  IV.— Gains  of  the  English  Language 

(continued). 

Lecture    V.— Diminutions  of  tho  English  Lan- 
guage. 


Lecture  VI.— Diminutions  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage (contimied). 

Lecture  VII.— Changes  in  the  Meaning  of  English 
Words. 

Lecture  VEIL— Changes  in  the  Spelling  of  English 
Words. 

Index  of  Subjects. —  Index  of  Words  and  Phrases. 


THE   HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  Yorlr. 


THE     HUMBOLDT     LIBRARY 


No.  110.  Double   number,  3O  cents. 

THE    STORY   OF   CREATION.-A  Plain  Account  of  Evolution. 

By  EDWARD  CLODD,  author  of  "The  Childhood  of  the  World,"  "The  Childhood 
of  Religions,"  "  The  Birth  and  Growth  of  Myths,"  &c. — Eighty  Illustrations. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter     I.— THE  UNIVERSE:  ITS  CONTENTS. 

1.  Matter.  •         a.  Force. 

2.  Power.  b.  Energy. 

Chapter   II. —  DISTRIBUTION    OF    MATTER    IN 

SPACE. 

Chapter  III.— THE  SUN  AND  PLANETS. 
The  Earth:    General  Features. 

Chapter  IV. —  THE  PAST  LIFE-HISTORY  OF  THE 

EARTH. 
Character  and  Contents  of  Rocks  of 

1.  Primary  Epoch.  3.  Tertiary  Epoch. 

2.  Secondary  Epoch.         4.  Quaternary  Epoch. 

Chapter     V.— PRESENT  LIFE-FORMS. 

Physical  Constituents  and  Unity. 

A.  Plants. 

1.  Flowerless.  2.  Flowering. 

B.  Animals. 

1.  Protozoa.  4.  Annulosa. 

2.  Coelenterata.  5.  Mollusca. 

3.  Echinodermata.  6.  Vertebrata. 

Chapter     VI.— THE   UNIVERSE:    MODE   OF   ITS 
BECOMING  AND  GROWTH. 

1.  Inorganic  Evolution.        3.  Evolution    of    the 

2.  Evolution  of  the  So-  Earth. 

lar  System. 

Chapter  VII.— THE  ORIGIN  OF  LIFE. 
Time.— Place.— Mode. 


Chapter  VIII.— THE  ORIGIN  OF  LIFE-FORMS. 
Priority  of    Plant  or  Animal. 
Cell-Structure  and  Development. 

Chapter     IX. — THE  ORIGIN  OF  SPECIES. 
Argument : 

1.  No  two  individuals  of  the  same  species  are  alike. 

Each  tends  to  vary. 

2.  Variations  are  transmitted,  and  therefore  tend 

to  become  permanent. 

3.  Man  takes  advantage  of  these  transmitted  un- 

likenesses  to  produce  new  varieties  of  plants 
and  animals. 

4.  More  organisms  are  born  than  survive. 

5.  The  result  is  obvious :  a  ceaseless  struggle  for 

place  and  food. 

6.  Natural  selection  tends  to  maintain  the  balance 

between  living  things  and  their  surround- 
ings. These  surroundings  change ;  therefore 
living  things  must  adapt  themselves  thereto, 
or  perish. 

Chapter    X.— PROOFS  OF  THE   DERIVATION  OF 
SPECIES. 

1.  Embryology.  4.  Succession  in  Time. 

2.  Morphology.  5.  Distribution  in  Space. 

3.  Classification.  Objections. 

Chapter    XI.— SOCIAL  EVOLUTION. 

1.  Evolution  of  Mind.         4.  Evolution  of  Morals. 

2.  Evolution  of  Society.     5.  Evolution   of  Theol- 

3.  Evolution  of  Language,  ogy. 

Arts,  and  Science.         Summary. 


No.  111. 

THE     PLEASURES 

F.R.S.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 


Chapter      I.— Ambition. 
Chapter     II.— Wealth. 

Chapter  III. -Health. 

Chapter  IV.— Love. 
Chapter     V.— Art. 

Chapter  VI.— Poetrv. 

Chapter  VII— Music. 


OF     LIFE.  — B7  Sir  JOHN   LUBBOCK,  Bart.,  M.P., 


PART    SECOND. 
CONTENTS. 

Chapter  VIII.— The  Beauties  of  Nature. 
Chapter     IX.— The  Troubles  of  Life. 
Chapter       X.— Labor  and  Rest. 
Chapter     XI.— Religion. 
Chapter    XII.—  The  Hope  "of-  Progress; 
Chapter  XIII.— The  Destiny  of  Man. 


*%  PART  FIRST.— For  the  contents  of  Part  First  see  No.  97  of  this  Catalogue. 

Ho.  112. 

PSYCHOLOGY    OF    ATTENTION.— By  TH.  EIBOT.— Translated  from  the 
French  by  J.  FITZGERALD,  M.A. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I. —  Purpose  of  this  treatise:  study  of 
the  mechanism  of  Attention. — 
Attention  defined. 

Chapter  II.— Spontaneous  or  Natural  Attention. 
Its  cause  always  affective  states. 
Its  physical  manifestations. — 
Attention  simply  the  subjective 
side  of  the  manifestations  that 
express  it.  —  Origin  of  Sponta- 
neous Attention. 

Chapter  III.— Voluntary  or  Artificial  Attention. 
How  it  is  produced.— The  three 
principal  periods  of  its  genesis: 


action  of  simple  feelings,  complex 
feelings,  and  habits.— Mechanism 
of  Voluntary  Attention. —  Atten- 
tion acts  only  upon  the  muscles 
and  through  the  muscles. —  The 
feeling  of  effort. 

Chapter  IV.—  Morbid  States  of  Attention.— Dis- 
traction.— Hypertrophy  of  Atten- 
tion.—  Atrophy  of  Attention. — 
Attention  in  idiots. 

Chapter  V. —  Conclusion. — Attention  dependent 
on  Affective  States.  —  Physical 
Condition  of  Attention. 


Published    monthly.     $1.5O  per  annum.— Single  numbers,  15  cents. 


OF    POPULAR     SCIENCE. 


No.  113.  Double  number,  3O   cents. 

HYPNOTISM:    ITS    HISTORY  AND    PRESENT   DEVELOPMENT. 

By  FREDRIK  BJORNSTROM,  M.D.,  Head  Physician  of  the  Stockholm  Hospital, 
Professor  of  Psychiatry,  late  Royal  Swedish  Medical  Councillor. —  Authorized 
Translation  from  the  Second  Swedish  Edition,  by  Baron  NILS  POSSE,  M.G., 
Director  of  the  Boston  School  of  Gymnastics. 

CONTENTS. 


I.— Historical  Retrospect. 
II. — Definition  of  Hypnotism. — Susceptibility  to 

Hypnotism. 

III. —  Means  or  Methods  of  Hypnotizing. 
IV.— Stages  or  Degrees  of  Hypnotism. 
V. — Un {lateral  Hypnotism. 
VI. — Physical  Effects  of  Hypnotism. 


VII.— Psychical  Effects  of  Hypnotism. 
VIII.— Suggestion. 

IX. —  Hypnotism  as  a  Remedial  Agent. 
X. — Hypnotism  as  a  Means  of  Education,  of 

as  a  Moral  Remedy. 
XI. —  Hypnotism  and  the  Law. 
XII.— Misuses  and  Dangers  of  Hypnotism. 
Bibliography  of  Hypnotism. 


No.  114.  Double  number,  3O   cents. 

CHRISTIANITY  AND    AGNOSTICISM.-A  Controversy -Consisting 

of  papers  contributed  to  The  Nineteenth  Century  by  HENRY  WACE,  D.D.,  Prof. 
THOMAS  H.  HUXLEY,  THE  BISHOP  OP  PETERBOROUGH,  W.  H.  MALLOCK,  Mrs. 
HUMPHRY  WARD. 


CONTENTS. 


I. —  On    Agnosticism.  —  By   HENRY    WACE, 
D.D.,   Prebendary  of    St.  Paul's   Cathe- 
dral ;  Principal  of"  King's  College, London. 
II.— Agnosticism.— By  Professor  THOMAS  H. 

HUXLEY. 
III.— Agnosticism.— A  Reply  to  Prof.  HUXLEY. 

By  HENRY  WAGE,  D.D. 
IV.— Agnosticism.— By  W.  C.  MAGEE,  D.D., 

Bishop  of  Peterborough. 
V.— Agnosticism.  — A  Rejoinder.  —  By   Prof. 

THOMAS  H.  HUXLEY. 

VI.— Christianity    and     Agnosticism — By 
HENRY  WAGE,  D.D. 


VII.— An   Explanation  to  Prof.  Huxley.— 

By  W.  C.  MAGEE,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Peter- 
borough. 

VIII.— The  Value  of  Witness  to  the  Mirac- 
ulous.—By.  Prof.  THOMAS  H.  HUXLEY. 

IX.— Agnosticism    and  Christianity.— By 

Prof.  THOMAS  H.  HUXLEY. 

X.— "Cowardly    Agnosticism."— A  Word 
with  Prof.  HuxLEY.-By  W.H.MALLOCK. 

XI.— The    New    Reformation.— By    Mrs. 
HUMPHRY  WARD. 


No.  115  and  No.  116.  Two  double  numbers,  3O  cents  each. 

DARWINISM:  AN  EXPOSITION  OF  THE  THEORY  OF  NATURAL 
SELECTION,  with  some  of  its  applications.-By  ALFRED  RUSSEL 
WALLACE,  L-L.D.,  F.L.S.,&c. — With  Portrait  of  the  Author  and  many  Illustrations. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I.— What  are  "Species,"  and  what  is 
meant  by  their  "Origin." 

Chapter     II.— The  Struggle  for  Existence. 

Chapter  III.— The  Variability  of  Species  in  a 
State  of  Nature. 

Chapter  IV. — Variation  of  Domesticated  Animals 
and  Cultivated  Plants. 

Chapter  V. — Natural  Selection  by  Variation  and 
Survival  of  the  Fittest. 

Chapter   VI. — Difficulties   and  Objections. 

Chapter  VII.— On  the  Infertility  of  Crosses  be- 
tween Distinct  Species,  and  the 
usual  Sterility  of  their  Hybrid 
Offspring. 


Chapter  VIIL— 


Chapter 
Chapter 


IX.- 
X.- 


Chapter  XI.- 
Chapter  XII.- 
Chapter  XIII.- 
Chapter  XIV.- 
Chapter  XV.- 


The  Origin  and  Uses  of  Color  in 
Animals. 

Warning  Coloration  and  Mimicry. 

Colors  and  Ornaments  character- 
istic of  Sex. 

The  Special  Colors  of  Plants.— 
Their  Origin  and  Purpose. 

The  Geographical  Distribution  of 
Organisms. 

The  Geological  Evidences  of  Evo- 
lution. 

Fundamental  Problems  in  Rela- 
tion to  Variation  and  Heredity. 

Darwinism  applied  to  Man. 


This  Catalogue  is  complete  to  November,  1889. 
No.  117  will  be  issued  December  1st. 


THE  HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


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Darwinism:  An    Exposition    of  the   Theory   of   Natural    Selection, 

with  some  of  its  applications. — By  ALFRED  RUSSEL  WALLACE,  LL.D.,  F.L.S. 
With  portrait  of  the  author  and  numerous  illustrations.     Cloth.     .     .     .     $1.25 

For  Tables   of  the  Contents   of  the  foregoing 

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Catalogue  of  monthly  publications. 

THE  HUMBOLDT  PUBLISHING  CO.,  28  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


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